Combining Philosophers

All the ideas for PG, Victor Velarde-Mayol and Martin Kusch

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242 ideas

1. Philosophy / B. History of Ideas / 3. Greek-English Lexicon
Agathon: good [PG]
     Full Idea: Agathon: good, the highest good
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 01)
Aisthesis: perception, sensation, consciousness [PG]
     Full Idea: Aisthesis: perception, sensation, consciousness
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 02)
Aitia / aition: cause, explanation [PG]
     Full Idea: Aitia / aition: cause, explanation
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 03)
     A reaction: The consensus is that 'explanation' is the better translation, and hence that the famous Four Causes (in 'Physics') must really be understood as the Four Modes of Explanation. They then make far more sense.
Akrasia: lack of control, weakness of will [PG]
     Full Idea: Akrasia: lack of control, weakness of will
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 04)
     A reaction: The whole Greek debate (and modern debate, I would say) makes much more sense if we stick to 'lack of control' as the translation, and forget about weakness of will - and certainly give up 'incontinence' as a translation.
Aletheia: truth [PG]
     Full Idea: Aletheia: truth
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 05)
Anamnesis: recollection, remembrance [PG]
     Full Idea: Anamnesis: recollection, remembrance
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 06)
     A reaction: This is used for Plato's doctrine that we recollect past lives.
Ananke: necessity [PG]
     Full Idea: Ananke: necessity
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 07)
Antikeimenon: object [PG]
     Full Idea: Antikeimenon: object
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 08)
Apatheia: unemotional [PG]
     Full Idea: Apatheia: lack of involvement, unemotional
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 09)
Apeiron: the unlimited, indefinite [PG]
     Full Idea: Apeiron: the unlimited, indefinite
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 10)
     A reaction: Key term in the philosophy of Anaximander, the one unknowable underlying element.
Aphairesis: taking away, abstraction [PG]
     Full Idea: Aphairesis: taking away, abstraction
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 11)
Apodeixis: demonstration [PG]
     Full Idea: Apodeixis: demonstration, proof
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 12)
Aporia: puzzle, question, anomaly [PG]
     Full Idea: Aporia: puzzle, question, anomaly
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 13)
Arche: first principle, the basic [PG]
     Full Idea: Arché: first principle, the basic
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 14)
     A reaction: Interchangeable with 'aitia' by Aristotle. The first principle and the cause are almost identical.
Arete: virtue, excellence [PG]
     Full Idea: Areté: virtue, excellence
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 15)
     A reaction: The word hovers between moral excellence and being good at what you do. Annas defends the older translation as 'virtue', rather than the modern 'excellence'.
Chronismos: separation [PG]
     Full Idea: Chronismos: separation
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 16)
Diairesis: division [PG]
     Full Idea: Diairesis: division, distinction
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 17)
Dialectic: dialectic, discussion [PG]
     Full Idea: Dialectic: dialectic, discussion
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 18)
Dianoia: intellection [cf. Noesis] [PG]
     Full Idea: Dianoia: intellection, understanding [cf. Noesis]
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 21)
Diaphora: difference [PG]
     Full Idea: Diaphora: difference
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 22)
Dikaiosune: moral goodness, justice [PG]
     Full Idea: Dikaiosune: moral goodness, justice
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 23)
     A reaction: Usually translated as 'justice' in 'Republic', but it is a general term of moral approbation, not like the modern political and legal notion of 'justice'. 'Justice' actually seems to be bad translation.
Doxa: opinion, belief [PG]
     Full Idea: Doxa: opinion, belief, judgement
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 24)
Dunamis: faculty, potentiality, capacity [PG]
     Full Idea: Dunamis: faculty, potentiality, capacity
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 25)
Eidos: form, idea [PG]
     Full Idea: Eidos: form, idea
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 26)
     A reaction: In Plato it is the word best translated as 'Form' (Theory of...); in Aritotle's 'Categories' it designates the species, and in 'Metaphysics' it ends up naming the structural form of the species (and hence the essence) [Wedin p.120]
Elenchos: elenchus, interrogation [PG]
     Full Idea: Elenchos: elenchus, interrogation
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 27)
Empeiron: experience [PG]
     Full Idea: Empeiron: experience
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 28)
Energeia: employment, actuality, power? [PG]
     Full Idea: Energeia: employment, actuality, power?
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 31)
Enkrateia: control [PG]
     Full Idea: Enkrateia: control
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 32)
     A reaction: See 'akrasia', of which this is the opposite. The enkratic person is controlled.
Entelecheia: entelechy, having an end [PG]
     Full Idea: Entelecheia: entelechy, having an end
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 33)
Epagoge: induction, explanation [PG]
     Full Idea: Epagoge: induction, explanation, leading on
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 34)
Episteme: knowledge, understanding [PG]
     Full Idea: Episteme: knowledge, understanding
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 35)
     A reaction: Note that 'episteme' can form a plural in Greek, but we can't say 'knowledges', so we have to say 'branches of knowledge', or 'sciences'.
Epithumia: appetite [PG]
     Full Idea: Epithumia: appetite
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 36)
Ergon: function [PG]
     Full Idea: Ergon: function, work
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 37)
Eristic: polemic, disputation [PG]
     Full Idea: Eristic: polemic, disputation
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 38)
     A reaction: This is confrontational argument, rather than the subtle co-operative dialogue of dialectic. British law courts and the House of Commons are founded on eristic, rather than on dialectic. Could there be a dialectical elected assembly?
Eros: love [PG]
     Full Idea: Eros: love, desire
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 41)
Eudaimonia: flourishing, happiness, fulfilment [PG]
     Full Idea: Eudaimonia: flourishing, happiness, fulfilment
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 42)
     A reaction: Some people defend 'happiness' as the translation, but that seems to me wildly misleading, since eudaimonia is something like life going well, and certainly isn't a psychological state - and definitely not pleasure.
Genos: type, genus [PG]
     Full Idea: Genos: type, genus, kind
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 43)
Hexis: state, habit [PG]
     Full Idea: Hexis: state, habit
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 44)
Horismos: definition [PG]
     Full Idea: Horismos: definition
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 45)
Hule: matter [PG]
     Full Idea: Hule: matter
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 46)
     A reaction: The first half of the 'hylomorphism' of Aristotle. See 'morphe'!
Hupokeimenon: subject, underlying thing [cf. Tode ti] [PG]
     Full Idea: Hupokeimenon: subject, underlying thing, substratum [cf. Tode ti]
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 47)
     A reaction: Literally 'that which lies under'. Latin version is 'substratum'. In Aristotle it is the problem, of explaining what lies under. It is not the theory that there is some entity called a 'substratum'.
Kalos / kalon: beauty, fineness, nobility [PG]
     Full Idea: Kalos / kalon: beauty, fineness, nobility
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 48)
     A reaction: A revealing Greek word, which is not only our rather pure notion of 'beauty', but also seems to mean something like wow!, and (very suggestive, this) applies as much to actions as to objects.
Kath' hauto: in virtue of itself, essentially [PG]
     Full Idea: Kath' hauto: in virtue of itself, essentially
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 51)
Kinesis: movement, process [PG]
     Full Idea: Kinesis: movement, process, change
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 52)
Kosmos: order, universe [PG]
     Full Idea: Kosmos: order, universe
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 53)
Logos: reason, account, word [PG]
     Full Idea: Logos: reason, account, word
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 54)
Meson: the mean [PG]
     Full Idea: Meson: the mean
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 55)
     A reaction: This is not the 'average', and hence not some theoretical mid-point. I would call it the 'appropriate compromise', remembering that an extreme may be appropriate in certain circumstances.
Metechein: partaking, sharing [PG]
     Full Idea: Metechein: partaking, sharing
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 56)
     A reaction: The key word in Plato for the difficult question of the relationships between the Forms and the particulars. The latter 'partake' of the former. Hm. Compare modern 'instantiation', which strikes me as being equally problematic.
Mimesis: imitation, fine art [PG]
     Full Idea: Mimesis: imitation, fine art
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 57)
Morphe: form [PG]
     Full Idea: Morphe: form
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 58)
Noesis: intellection, rational thought [cf. Dianoia] [PG]
     Full Idea: Noesis: intellection, rational thought [cf. Dianoia]
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 59)
Nomos: convention, law, custom [PG]
     Full Idea: Nomos: convention, law, custom
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 61)
Nous: intuition, intellect, understanding [PG]
     Full Idea: Nous: intuition, intellect
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 62)
     A reaction: There is a condensed discussion of 'nous' in Aristotle's Posterior Analytics B.19
Orexis: desire [PG]
     Full Idea: Orexis: desire
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 63)
Ousia: substance, (primary) being, [see 'Prote ousia'] [PG]
     Full Idea: Ousia: substance, (primary) being [see 'Prote ousia']
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 64)
     A reaction: It is based on the verb 'to be'. Latin therefore translated it as 'essentia' (esse: to be), and we have ended up translating it as 'essence', but this is wrong! 'Being' is the best translation, and 'substance' is OK. It is the problem, not the answer.
Pathos: emotion, affection, property [PG]
     Full Idea: Pathos: emotion, affection, property
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 65)
Phantasia: imagination [PG]
     Full Idea: Phantasia: imagination
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 66)
Philia: friendship [PG]
     Full Idea: Philia: friendship
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 67)
Philosophia: philosophy, love of wisdom [PG]
     Full Idea: Philosophia: philosophy, love of wisdom
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 68)
     A reaction: The point of the word is its claim only to love wisdom, and not actually to be wise.
Phronesis: prudence, practical reason, common sense [PG]
     Full Idea: Phronesis: prudence, practical reason, common sense
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 71)
     A reaction: None of the experts use my own translation, which is 'common sense', but that seems to me to perfectly fit all of Aristotle's discussions of the word in 'Ethics'. 'Prudence' seems a daft translation in modern English.
Physis: nature [PG]
     Full Idea: Physis: nature
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 72)
Praxis: action, activity [PG]
     Full Idea: Praxis: action, activity
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 73)
Prote ousia: primary being [PG]
     Full Idea: Prote ousia: primary being
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 74)
     A reaction: The main topic of investigation in Aristotle's 'Metaphysics'. 'Ousia' is the central problem of the text, NOT the answer to the problem.
Psuche: mind, soul, life [PG]
     Full Idea: Psuche: mind, soul, life
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 75)
     A reaction: The interesting thing about this is that we have tended to translate it as 'soul', but Aristotle says plants have it, and not merely conscious beings. It is something like the 'form' of a living thing, but then 'form' is a misleading translation too.
Sophia: wisdom [PG]
     Full Idea: Sophia: wisdom
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 76)
Sophrosune: moderation, self-control [PG]
     Full Idea: Sophrosune: moderation, self-control
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 77)
Stoicheia: elements [PG]
     Full Idea: Stoicheia: elements
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 78)
Sullogismos: deduction, syllogism [PG]
     Full Idea: Sullogismos: deduction, syllogism
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 81)
Techne: skill, practical knowledge [PG]
     Full Idea: Techne: skill, practical knowledge
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 82)
Telos: purpose, end [PG]
     Full Idea: Telos: purpose, end
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 83)
Theoria: contemplation [PG]
     Full Idea: Theoria: contemplation
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 84)
Theos: god [PG]
     Full Idea: Theos: god
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 85)
Ti esti: what-something-is, essence [PG]
     Full Idea: Ti esti: the what-something-is, essence, whatness
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 86)
Timoria: vengeance, punishment [PG]
     Full Idea: Timoria: vengeance, punishment
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 87)
To ti en einai: essence, what-it-is-to-be [PG]
     Full Idea: To ti en einai: essence, what-it-is-to-be
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 88)
     A reaction: This is Aristotle's main term for what we would now call the 'essence'. It is still not a theory of essence, merely an identification of the target. 'Form' is the nearest we get to his actual theory.
To ti estin: essence [PG]
     Full Idea: To ti estin: essence
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 91)
Tode ti: this-such, subject of predication [cf. hupokeimenon] [PG]
     Full Idea: Tode ti: this-something, subject of predication, thisness [cf. hupokeimenon]
     From: PG (Db (lexicon) [c.1001 BCE], 92)
1. Philosophy / C. History of Philosophy / 2. Ancient Philosophy / a. Ancient chronology
323 (roughly): Euclid wrote 'Elements', summarising all of geometry [PG]
     Full Idea: Euclid: In around 323 BCE Euclid wrote his 'Elements', summarising all of known geometry.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030])
1000 (roughly): Upanishads written (in Sanskrit); religious and philosophical texts [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 1000 BCE the Upanishads were written, the most philosophical of ancient Hindu texts
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0001)
750 (roughly): the Book of Genesis written by Hebrew writers [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 750 BCE the Book of Genesis was written by an anonymous jewish writer
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0250)
586: eclipse of the sun on the coast of modern Turkey was predicted by Thales of Miletus [PG]
     Full Idea: In 585 BCE there was an eclipse of the sun, which Thales of Miletus is said to have predicted
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0415)
570: Anaximander flourished in Miletus [PG]
     Full Idea: Anaximander: In around 570 BCE the philosopher and astronomer Anaximander flourished in Miletus
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0430)
563: the Buddha born in northern India [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 563 BCE Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, was born in northern India
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0437)
540: Lao Tzu wrote 'Tao Te Ching', the basis of Taoism [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 540 BCE Lao Tzu wrote the 'Tao Te Ching', the basis of Taoism
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0460)
529: Pythagoras created his secretive community at Croton in Sicily [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 529 BCE Pythagoras set up a community in Croton, with strict and secret rules and teachings
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0471)
500: Heraclitus flourishes at Ephesus, in modern Turkey [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 500 BCE Heraclitus flourished in the city of Ephesus in Ionia
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0500)
496: Confucius travels widely, persuading rulers to be more moral [PG]
     Full Idea: In 496 BCE Confucius began a period of wandering, to persuade rulers to be more moral
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0504)
472: Empedocles persuades his city (Acragas in Sicily) to become a democracy [PG]
     Full Idea: In 472 BCE Empedocles helped his city of Acragas change to democracy
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0528)
450 (roughly): Parmenides and Zeno visit Athens from Italy [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 450 BCE Parmenides and Zeno visited the festival in Athens
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0550)
445: Protagoras helps write laws for the new colony of Thurii [PG]
     Full Idea: In 443 BCE Protagoras helped write the laws for the new colony of Thurii
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0557)
436 (roughly): Anaxagoras is tried for impiety, and expelled from Athens [PG]
     Full Idea: In about 436 BCE Anaxagoras was tried on a charge of impiety and expelled from Athens
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0564)
427: Gorgias visited Athens as ambassador for Leontini [PG]
     Full Idea: In 427 BCE Gorgias of Leontini visited Athens as an ambassador for his city
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0573)
399: Socrates executed (with Plato absent through ill health) [PG]
     Full Idea: In 399 BCE Plato was unwell, and was not present at the death of Socrates
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0601)
387 (roughly): Plato returned to Athens, and founded the Academy [PG]
     Full Idea: In about 387 BCE Plato returned to Athens and founded his new school at the Academy
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0613)
387 (roughly): Aristippus the Elder founder a hedonist school at Cyrene [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 387 BCE a new school was founded at Cyrene by Aristippus the elder
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0613)
367: the teenaged Aristotle came to study at the Academy [PG]
     Full Idea: In 367 BCE the seventeen-year-old Aristotle came south to study at the Academy
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0633)
360 (roughly): Diogenes of Sinope lives in a barrel in central Athens [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 360 BCE Diogenes of Sinope was living in a barrel in the Agora in Athens
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0640)
347: death of Plato [PG]
     Full Idea: In 347 BCE Plato died
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0653)
343: Aristotle becomes tutor to 13 year old Alexander (the Great) [PG]
     Full Idea: In 343 BCE at Stagira Aristotle became personal tutor to the thirteen-year-old Alexander (the Great)
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0657)
335: Arisotle founded his school at the Lyceum in Athens [PG]
     Full Idea: In 335 BCE Aristotle founded the Lyceum in Athens
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0665)
330 (roughly): Chuang Tzu wrote his Taoist book [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 330 BCE Chuang Tzu wrote a key work in the Taoist tradition
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0670)
322: Aristotle retired to Chalcis, and died there [PG]
     Full Idea: In 322 BCE Aristotle retired to Chalcis in Euboea, where he died
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0678)
307 (roughly): Epicurus founded his school at the Garden in Athens [PG]
     Full Idea: In about 307 BCE Epicurus founded his school at the Garden in Athens
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0693)
301 (roughly): Zeno of Citium founded Stoicism at the Stoa Poikile in Athens [PG]
     Full Idea: In about 301 BCE the Stoic school was founded by Zeno of Citium in the Stoa Poikile in Athens
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0699)
261: Cleanthes replaced Zeno as head of the Stoa [PG]
     Full Idea: In 261 BCE Cleanthes took over from Zeno as head of the Stoa.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0739)
229 (roughly): Chrysippus replaced Cleanthes has head of the Stoa [PG]
     Full Idea: In about 229 BCE Chrysippus took over from Cleanthes as the head of the Stoic school
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0771)
157 (roughly): Carneades became head of the Academy [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 157 BCE Carneades took over as head of the Academy from Hegesinus
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0843)
85: most philosophical activity moves to Alexandria [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 85 BCE Athens went into philosophical decline, and leadership moved to Alexandria
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0915)
78: Cicero visited the stoic school on Rhodes [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 78 BCE Cicero visited the school of Posidonius in Rhodes.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0922)
60 (roughly): Lucretius wrote his Latin poem on epicureanism [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 60 BCE Lucretius wrote his Latin poem on Epicureanism
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 0940)
65: Seneca forced to commit suicide by Nero [PG]
     Full Idea: In 65 CE Seneca was forced to commit suicide by the Emperor Nero.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 1065)
80: the discourses of the stoic Epictetus are written down [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 80 CE the 'Discourses' of the freed slave Epictetus were written down in Rome.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 1080)
170 (roughly): Marcus Aurelius wrote his private stoic meditations [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 170 CE the Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote his 'Meditations' for private reading.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 1170)
-200 (roughly): Sextus Empiricus wrote a series of books on scepticism [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 200 CE Sextus Empiricus wrote a series of books (which survive) defending scepticism
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 1200)
263: Porphyry began to study with Plotinus in Rome [PG]
     Full Idea: In 263 CE Porphyry joined Plotinus' classes in Rome
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 1263)
310: Christianity became the official religion of the Roman empire [PG]
     Full Idea: In 310 CE Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 1310)
387: Ambrose converts Augustine to Christianity [PG]
     Full Idea: In 387 CE Augustine converted to Christianity in Milan, guided by St Ambrose
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 1387)
523: Boethius imprisoned at Pavia, and begins to write [PG]
     Full Idea: In 523 CE Boethius was imprisoned in exile at Pavia, and wrote 'Consolations of Philosophy'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 1523)
529: the emperor Justinian closes all the philosophy schools in Athens [PG]
     Full Idea: In 529 CE the Emperor Justinian closed all the philosophy schools in Athens
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 1529)
1. Philosophy / C. History of Philosophy / 3. Earlier European Philosophy / a. Earlier European chronology
622 (roughly): Mohammed writes the Koran [PG]
     Full Idea: Mohammed: In about 622 CE Muhammed wrote the basic text of Islam, the Koran.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 1622)
642: Arabs close the philosophy schools in Alexandria [PG]
     Full Idea: In 642 CE Alexandria was captured by the Arabs, and the philosophy schools were closed
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 1642)
910 (roughly): Al-Farabi wrote Arabic commentaries on Aristotle [PG]
     Full Idea: Alfarabi: In around 910 CE Al-Farabi explained and expanded Aristotle for the Islamic world.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 1910)
1015 (roughly): Ibn Sina (Avicenna) writes a book on Aristotle [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 1015 Avicenna produced his Platonised version of Aristotle in 'The Healing'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2015)
1090: Anselm publishes his proof of the existence of God [PG]
     Full Idea: Anselm: In about 1090 St Anselm of Canterbury publishes his Ontological Proof of God's existence
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2090)
1115: Abelard is the chief logic teacher in Paris [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 1115 Abelard became established as the chief logic teacher in Paris
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2115)
1166: Ibn Rushd (Averroes) wrote extensive commentaries on Aristotle [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 1166 Averroes (Ibn Rushd), in Seville, wrote extensive commentaries on Aristotle
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2166)
1266: Aquinas began writing 'Summa Theologica' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1266 Aquinas began writing his great theological work, the 'Summa Theologica'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2266)
1280: after his death, the teaching of Aquinas becomes official Dominican doctrine [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 1280 Aquinas's teaching became the official theology of the Dominican order
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2280)
1328: William of Ockham decides the Pope is a heretic, and moves to Munich [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1328 William of Ockham decided the Pope was a heretic, and moved to Munich
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2328)
1347: the Church persecutes philosophical heresies [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1347 the Church began extensive persecution of unorthodox philosophical thought
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2347)
1470: Marsilio Ficino founds a Platonic Academy in Florence [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 1470 Marsilio Ficino founded a Platonic Academy in Florence
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2470)
1513: Machiavelli wrote 'The Prince' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1513 Machiavelli wrote 'The Prince', a tough view of political theory.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2513)
1543: Copernicus publishes his heliocentric view of the solar system [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1543 Nicholas Copernicus, a Polish monk, publishes his new theory of the solar system.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2543)
1580: Montaigne publishes his essays [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1580 Montaigne published a volume of his 'Essays'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2580)
1600: Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake in Rome [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1600 Giordano Bruno was burnt at the stake in Rome, largely for endorsing Copernicus
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2600)
1. Philosophy / C. History of Philosophy / 4. Later European Philosophy / a. Later European chronology
1619: Descartes's famous day of meditation inside a stove [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1619 Descartes had a famous day of meditation in a heated stove at Ulm
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2619)
1620: Bacon publishes 'Novum Organum' [PG]
     Full Idea: Francis Bacon: In 1620 Bacon published his 'Novum Organon', urging the rise of experimental science
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2620)
1633: Galileo convicted of heresy by the Inquisition [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1633 Galileo was condemned to life emprisonment for contradicting church teachings.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2633)
1641: Descartes publishes his 'Meditations' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1641 Descartes published his well-known 'Meditations', complete with Objections and Replies
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2641)
1650: death of Descartes, in Stockholm [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1650 Descartes died in Stockholm, after stressful work for Queen Christina
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2650)
1651: Hobbes publishes 'Leviathan' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1651 Hobbes published his great work on politics and contract morality, 'Leviathan'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2651)
1662: the Port Royal Logic is published [PG]
     Full Idea: Antoine Arnauld: In 1662 Arnauld and Nicole published their famous text, the 'Port-Royal Logic'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2662)
1665: Spinoza writes his 'Ethics' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1665 the first draft of Spinoza's 'Ethics', his major work, was finished, and published posthumously
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2665)
1676: Leibniz settled as librarian to the Duke of Brunswick [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1676 Leibniz became librarian to the Duke of Brunswick, staying for the rest of his life
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2676)
1687: Newton publishes his 'Principia Mathematica' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1687 Newton published his 'Principia', containing his theory of gravity.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2687)
1690: Locke publishes his 'Essay' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1690 Locke published his 'Essay', his major work on empiricism
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2690)
1697: Bayle publishes his 'Dictionary' [PG]
     Full Idea: Pierre Bayle: In about 1697 Pierre Bayle published his 'Historical and Critical Dictionary'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2697)
1713: Berkeley publishes his 'Three Dialogues' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1713 Berkeley published a popular account of his empiricist idealism in 'Three Dialogues'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2713)
1734: Voltaire publishes his 'Philosophical Letters' [PG]
     Full Idea: Francois-Marie Voltaire: In 1734 Voltaire's 'Lettres Philosophiques' praised liberalism and empiricism
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2734)
1739: Hume publishes his 'Treatise' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1739 Hume returned to Edinburgh and published his 'Treatise', but it sold very few copies
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2739)
1762: Rousseau publishes his 'Social Contract' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1762 Rousseau published his 'Social Contract', basing politics on the popular will
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2762)
1781: Kant publishes his 'Critique of Pure Reason' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1781 Kant published his first great work, the 'Critique of Pure Reason'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2781)
1785: Reid publishes his essays defending common sense [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1785 Thomas Reid, based in Glasgow, published essays defending common sense.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2785)
1798: the French Revolution [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1789 the French Revolution gave strong impetus to the anti-rational 'Romantic' movement
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2789)
1807: Hegel publishes his 'Phenomenology of Spirit' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1807 Hegel published his first major work, the 'Phenomenology of Spirit'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2807)
1818: Schopenhauer publishes his 'World as Will and Idea' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1818 Schopenhauer published 'The World as Will and Idea', his major work
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2818)
1840: Kierkegaard is writing extensively in Copenhagen [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 1840 Kierkegaard lived a quiet life as a writer in Copenhagen
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2840)
1843: Mill publishes his 'System of Logic' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1843 Mill published his 'System of Logic'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2843)
1848: Marx and Engels publis the Communist Manifesto [PG]
     Full Idea: Karl Marx: In 1848 Marx and Engels published their 'Communist Manifesto'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2848)
1859: Darwin publishes his 'Origin of the Species' [PG]
     Full Idea: Charles Darwin: In 1859 Charles Darwin published his theory of natural selection in 'Origin of the Species'.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2859)
1861: Mill publishes 'Utilitarianism' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1861 Mill published his book 'Utilitarianism'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2861)
1867: Marx begins publishing 'Das Kapital' [PG]
     Full Idea: Karl Marx: In 1867 Karl Marx began publishing his political work 'Das Kapital'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2867)
1. Philosophy / C. History of Philosophy / 5. Modern Philosophy / a. Modern philosophy chronology
1879: Peirce taught for five years at Johns Hopkins University [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1879 Peirce began five years of teaching at Johns Hopkins University
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2879)
1879: Frege invents predicate logic [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1879 Frege published his 'Concept Script', which created predicate logic
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2879)
1892: Frege's essay 'Sense and Reference' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1892 Frege published his famous essay 'Sense and Reference' (Sinn und Bedeutung)
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2882)
1884: Frege publishes his 'Foundations of Arithmetic' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1884 Frege published his 'Foundations of Arithmetic', the beginning of logicism
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2884)
1885: Nietzsche completed 'Thus Spake Zarathustra' [PG]
     Full Idea: In about 1885 Nietzsche completed his book 'Also Sprach Zarathustra'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2885)
1888: Dedekind publishes axioms for arithmetic [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1888 Dedekind created simple axioms for arithmetic (the Peano Axioms)
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2888)
1890: James published 'Principles of Psychology' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1890 James published his 'Principles of Psychology'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2890)
1895 (roughly): Freud developed theories of the unconscious [PG]
     Full Idea: In around 1895 Sigmund Freud developed his theories of the unconscious mind
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2895)
1900: Husserl began developing Phenomenology [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1900 Edmund Husserl began presenting his new philosophy of Phenomenology
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2900)
1903: Moore published 'Principia Ethica' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1903 G.E. Moore published his 'Principia Ethica', attacking naturalistic ethics.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2903)
1904: Dewey became professor at Columbia University [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1904 Dewey moved to Columbia University in New York.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2904)
1908: Zermelo publishes axioms for set theory [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1908 Zermelo published an axiomatisation of the new set theory
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2908)
1910: Russell and Whitehead begin publishing 'Principia Mathematica' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1910 Russell began publication of 'Principia Mathematica', with Whitehead
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2910)
1912: Russell meets Wittgenstein in Cambridge [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1912 Russell met Wittgenstein at Cambridge
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2912)
1921: Wittgenstein's 'Tractatus' published [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1921 Wittgenstein's 'Tractatus' was published
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2921)
1927: Heidegger's 'Being and Time' published [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1927 Heidegger's major work, 'Being and Time', was published
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2927)
1930: Frank Ramsey dies at 27 [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1930 Frank Ramsey died at the age of 27.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2930)
1931: Gödel's Incompleteness Theorems [PG]
     Full Idea: Kurt Gödel: In 1931 the mathematician Kurt Gödel publishes his Incompleteness Theorems.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2931)
1933: Tarski's theory of truth [PG]
     Full Idea: Alfred Tarski: In 1933 Alfred Tarski wrote a famous paper presenting a semantic theory of truth.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2933)
1942: Camus published 'The Myth of Sisyphus' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1942 Camus published 'The Myth of Sisyphus', exploring suicide and the absurd
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2942)
1943: Sartre's 'Being and Nothingness' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1943 Jean-Paul Sartre published his major work, 'Being and Nothingness'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2943)
1945: Merleau-Ponty's 'Phenomenology of Perception' [PG]
     Full Idea: Maurice Merleau-Ponty: In 1945 Maurice Merleau-Pont published 'The Phenomenology of Perception'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2945)
1947: Carnap published 'Meaning and Necessity' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1947 Carnap published 'Meaning and Necessity'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2947)
1950: Quine's essay 'Two Dogmas of Empiricism' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1950 Willard Quine published 'Two Dogmas of Empiricism', attacking analytic truth
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2950)
1953: Wittgenstein's 'Philosophical Investigations' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1953 Wittgenstein's posthumous work 'Philosophical Investigations' is published
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2953)
1956: Place proposed mind-brain identity [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1956 U.T. Place proposed that the mind is identical to the brain
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2956)
1962: Kuhn's 'Structure of Scientific Revolutions' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1962 Thomas Kuhn's 'Structure of Scientific Revolutions' questioned the authority of science
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2962)
1967: Putnam proposed functionalism of the mind [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1967 Putname proposed the functionalist view of the mind
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2967)
1971: Rawls's 'A Theory of Justice' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1971 John Rawls published his famous defence of liberalism in 'A Theory of Justice'
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2971)
1972: Kripke publishes 'Naming and Necessity' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1972 Saul Kripke's 'Naming and Necessity' revised theories about language and reality
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2972)
1975: Singer publishes 'Animal Rights' [PG]
     Full Idea: Peter Singer: In 1975 Peter Singer's 'Animal Rights' turned the attention of philosophers to applied ethics.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2975)
1975: Putnam published his Twin Earth example [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1975 Putnam published 'The Meaning of 'Meaning'', containing his Twin Earth example
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2975)
1986: David Lewis publishes 'On the Plurality of Worlds' [PG]
     Full Idea: In 1986 David Lewis published 'On the Plurality of Worlds', about possible worlds.
     From: PG (Db (chronology) [2030], 2986)
1. Philosophy / F. Analytic Philosophy / 5. Linguistic Analysis
Note that "is" can assert existence, or predication, or identity, or classification [PG]
     Full Idea: There are four uses of the word "is" in English: as existence ('he is at home'), as predication ('he is tall'), as identity ('he is the man I saw'), and as classification ('he is British').
     From: PG (Db (ideas) [2031])
     A reaction: This seems a nice instance of the sort of point made by analytical philosophy, which can lead to horrible confusion in other breeds of philosophy when it is overlooked.
2. Reason / F. Fallacies / 1. Fallacy
Fallacies are errors in reasoning, 'formal' if a clear rule is breached, and 'informal' if more general [PG]
     Full Idea: Fallacies are errors in reasoning, labelled as 'formal' if a clear rule has been breached, and 'informal' if some less precise error has been made.
     From: PG (Db (ideas) [2031])
     A reaction: Presumably there can be a grey area between the two.
2. Reason / F. Fallacies / 3. Question Begging
Question-begging assumes the proposition which is being challenged [PG]
     Full Idea: To beg the question is to take for granted in your argument that very proposition which is being challenged
     From: PG (Db (ideas) [2031])
     A reaction: An undoubted fallacy, and a simple failure to engage in the rational enterprise. I suppose one might give a reason for something, under the mistaken apprehension that it didn't beg the question; analysis of logical form is then needed.
2. Reason / F. Fallacies / 6. Fallacy of Division
What is true of a set is also true of its members [PG]
     Full Idea: The fallacy of division is the claim that what is true of a set must therefore be true of its members.
     From: PG (Db (ideas) [2031])
     A reaction: Clearly a fallacy, but if you only accept sets which are rational, then there is always a reason why a particular is a member of a set, and you can infer facts about particulars from the nature of the set
2. Reason / F. Fallacies / 7. Ad Hominem
The Ad Hominem Fallacy criticises the speaker rather than the argument [PG]
     Full Idea: The Ad Hominem Fallacy is to criticise the person proposing an argument rather than the argument itself, as when you say "You would say that", or "Your behaviour contradicts what you just said".
     From: PG (Db (ideas) [2031])
     A reaction: Nietzsche is very keen on ad hominem arguments, and cheerfully insults great philosophers, but then he doesn't believe there is such a thing as 'pure argument', and he is a relativist.
3. Truth / C. Correspondence Truth / 1. Correspondence Truth
Correspondence could be with other beliefs, rather than external facts [Kusch]
     Full Idea: The correspondence theory of truth does not commit one to the view the reality is mind-independent. There is no reason why the 'facts' that correspond to true beliefs might not themselves be beliefs or ideas.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch.17)
     A reaction: This seems important, as it is very easy to assume that espousal of correspondence necessarily goes with realism about the external world. It is surprising to think that a full-blown Idealist might espouse the correspondence theory.
3. Truth / F. Semantic Truth / 1. Tarski's Truth / a. Tarski's truth definition
Tarskians distinguish truth from falsehood by relations between members of sets [Kusch]
     Full Idea: According to the Tarskians we separate out truths from falsehoods by tracing the relations between members of different sets.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch.16)
3. Truth / H. Deflationary Truth / 3. Minimalist Truth
Minimal theories of truth avoid ontological commitment to such things as 'facts' or 'reality' [PG]
     Full Idea: Minimalist theories of truth are those which involve minimum ontological commitment, avoiding references to 'reality' or 'facts' or 'what works', preferring to refer to formal relationships within language.
     From: PG (Db (ideas) [2031])
     A reaction: Personally I am suspicious of minimal theories, which seem to be designed by and for anti-realists. They seem too focused on language, when animals can obviously formulate correct propositions. I'm quite happy with the 'facts', even if that is vague.
5. Theory of Logic / L. Paradox / 1. Paradox
Monty Hall Dilemma: do you abandon your preference after Monty eliminates one of the rivals? [PG]
     Full Idea: The Monty Hall Dilemma: Three boxes, one with a big prize; pick one to open. Monty Hall then opens one of the other two, which is empty. You may, if you wish, switch from your box to the other unopened box. Should you?
     From: PG (Db (ideas) [2031])
     A reaction: The other two boxes, as a pair, are more likely contain the prize than your box. Monty Hall has eliminated one of them for you, so you should choose the other one. Your intuition that the two remaining boxes are equal is incorrect!
10. Modality / B. Possibility / 6. Probability
Everything has a probability, something will happen, and probabilities add up [PG]
     Full Idea: The three Kolgorov axioms of probability: the probability of an event is a non-negative real number; it is certain that one of the 'elementary events' will occur; and the unity of probabilities is the sum of probability of parts ('additivity').
     From: PG (Db (ideas) [2031])
     A reaction: [My attempt to verbalise them; they are normally expressed in terms of set theory]. Got this from a talk handout, and Wikipedia.
11. Knowledge Aims / A. Knowledge / 4. Belief / a. Beliefs
We can have knowledge without belief, if others credit us with knowledge [Kusch]
     Full Idea: We can have knowledge that p without believing that p. It is enough that others credit us with the knowledge.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch. 5)
     A reaction: [He is discussing Welbourne 1993] This is an extreme of the communitarian view.
11. Knowledge Aims / C. Knowing Reality / 1. Perceptual Realism / a. Naďve realism
If reality is just what we perceive, we would have no need for a sixth sense [PG]
     Full Idea: Reality must be more than merely what we perceive, because a sixth sense would enhance our current knowledge, and a seventh, and so on.
     From: PG (Db (ideas) [2031])
11. Knowledge Aims / C. Knowing Reality / 4. Solipsism
The Cogito demands a bridge to the world, and ends in isolating the ego [Velarde-Mayol]
     Full Idea: All philosophies inspired in the Cogito have the problem of building a bridge from the starting point of consciousness to the external world. The result of this is the isolation and solitude of the very ego.
     From: Victor Velarde-Mayol (On Husserl [2000], 4.7.2)
     A reaction: This strikes me as a pretty good reason not to develop a philosophy which is inspired by the Cogito.
Methodological Solipsism assumes all ideas could be derived from one mind [Kusch]
     Full Idea: 'Methodological solipsism' says merely that everyone can conceive of themselves as the only subject. Everyone can construct all referents of their thought and talk out of complexes of their very own experience.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch.19)
     A reaction: The possibility of this can be denied (e.g. by Putnam 1983, dating back to Wittgenstein). I too would doubt it, though finding a good argument seems a forlorn hope.
12. Knowledge Sources / A. A Priori Knowledge / 5. A Priori Synthetic
If my team is losing 3-1, I have synthetic a priori knowledge that they need two goals for a draw [PG]
     Full Idea: If my football team is losing 3-1, I seem to have synthetic a priori knowledge that they need two goals to achieve a draw
     From: PG (Db (ideas) [2031])
12. Knowledge Sources / B. Perception / 3. Representation
The representation may not be a likeness [Velarde-Mayol]
     Full Idea: Representationalism is the doctrine that maintains that the object is represented in consciousness by means of an image. ...One should not confuse an image with a likeness.
     From: Victor Velarde-Mayol (On Husserl [2000], 2.4.3)
     A reaction: Helpful reminder that sense-data or whatever may not be a likeness. But then how do they represent? Symbolic representation needs massive interpretation.
13. Knowledge Criteria / B. Internal Justification / 4. Foundationalism / f. Foundationalism critique
Foundations seem utterly private, even from oneself at a later time [Kusch]
     Full Idea: Foundationalists place the foundations of knowledge at a point where they are in principle accessible only to the individual knower. They cannot be 'shared' with another person, or with oneself at a later time.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch. 8)
     A reaction: Kusch is defending an extremely social view of knowledge. Being private to an individual may just he an unfortunate epistemological fact. Being unavailable even to one's later self seems a real problem for foundational certainty.
13. Knowledge Criteria / B. Internal Justification / 5. Coherentism / a. Coherence as justification
Testimony is reliable if it coheres with evidence for a belief, and with other beliefs [Kusch]
     Full Idea: Testimony must be reliable since its deliveries cohere both with input from other information routes in the formation of single beliefs, and with other types of beliefs in the formation of systems of belief.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch. 4)
     A reaction: Kusch criticises this view (credited to C.A.J. Coady 1992) as too individualistic , but it sounds to me dead right. I take a major appeal of the coherence account of justification to be its capacity to extend seamlessly out into external testimony.
The coherentist restricts the space of reasons to the realm of beliefs [Kusch]
     Full Idea: The coherentist restricts the space of reasons to the realm of beliefs.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch. 8)
     A reaction: I endorse this idea, which endorses Davidson's slogan on the subject. The key thought is that a 'pure' sensation is uninterpreted, and so cannot justify anything. It is only once it generates a proposition that it can justify. But McDowell 1994.
13. Knowledge Criteria / B. Internal Justification / 5. Coherentism / c. Coherentism critique
Individualistic coherentism lacks access to all of my beliefs, or critical judgement of my assessment [Kusch]
     Full Idea: Individualistic versions of coherentism assume that a belief is justified if it fits with all, or most, of my contemporaneous beliefs. But who has access to that totality? Who can judge my assessment? From what position could it be judged?
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch. 8)
     A reaction: [compressed] Though I agree with Kusch on the social aspect of coherence, I don't think these are major criticisms. Who can access, or critically evaluate a society's body of supposedly coherent beliefs? We just do our best.
Individual coherentism cannot generate the necessary normativity [Kusch]
     Full Idea: Standard forms of coherentism are unable to account for normativity, because of their common individualism. Normativity cannot be generated within the isolated individual, or in the causal interaction between world and individual mind.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch.10)
     A reaction: This thought leads to belief in rationalism and the a priori, not (as Kusch hopes) to the social dimension. How can social normativity get off the ground if there is none of it to be found in individuals? The criteria of coherence seem to be given.
13. Knowledge Criteria / C. External Justification / 2. Causal Justification
Cultures decide causal routes, and they can be critically assessed [Kusch]
     Full Idea: Assessments of causal routes are specific to cultures, and thus not beyond dialectical justification.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch.11)
     A reaction: This is a good defence of the social and communitarian view against those who are trying to be thoroughly naturalistic and physicalist by relying entirely on causal processes for all explanation, even though I sympathise with such naturalism.
13. Knowledge Criteria / C. External Justification / 3. Reliabilism / a. Reliable knowledge
Process reliabilism has been called 'virtue epistemology', resting on perception, memory, reason [Kusch]
     Full Idea: Process reliabilism is sometimes subsumed under the label 'virtue epistemology', so that processes are 'epistemically virtuous' if they lead mostly to true beliefs. The 'intellectual virtues' here are perception, memory or reasoning.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch. 9)
     A reaction: I am shocked that 'intellectual virtue' should be hijacked by reliabilists, suggesting that it even applies to a good clock. I like the Aristotelian idea that sound knowledge rests on qualities of character in the knower - including social qualities.
13. Knowledge Criteria / C. External Justification / 6. Contextual Justification / a. Contextualism
Justification depends on the audience and one's social role [Kusch]
     Full Idea: How a claim (about an X-ray) needs to be justified depends on whether one is confronted by a group of laypersons, or of experts, and is prescribed by one's social role.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch. 8)
     A reaction: I think this is exactly right. I cannot think of any absolute criterion for justification which doesn't play straight into the hands of sceptics. Final and certain justification is an incoherent notion. But I am a little more individualistic than Kusch.
13. Knowledge Criteria / C. External Justification / 7. Testimony
Testimony is an area in which epistemology meets ethics [Kusch]
     Full Idea: Testimony is an area in which epistemology meets ethics.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch. 5)
     A reaction: This is very thought-provoking. A key concept linking the two would be 'respect'. Consider also 'experts'.
Powerless people are assumed to be unreliable, even about their own lives [Kusch]
     Full Idea: The powerless in society are not usually taken to be trustworthy witnesses even when it comes to providing information about their own lives.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch. 5)
     A reaction: This is where epistemology shades off into politics and the writings of Foucault.
Testimony does not just transmit knowledge between individuals - it actually generates knowledge [Kusch]
     Full Idea: Testimony is not just a means of transmission of complete items of knowledge from and to an individual. Testimony is almost always generative of knowledge.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Intro)
     A reaction: I'm not clear how my testimony could fail to be knowledge for me, but become knowledge just because I pass it to you. I might understand what I say better than you did. When fools pool their testimony, presumably not much knowledge results.
Some want to reduce testimony to foundations of perceptions, memories and inferences [Kusch]
     Full Idea: Reductionalists about testimony are foundationalists by temperament. ...Their project amounts to justifying our testimonial beliefs in terms of perceptions, memories and inferences.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch. 4)
     A reaction: Kusch wants to claim that the sharing of testimony is the means by which knowledge is created. My line is something like knowledge being founded on a social coherence, which is an extension of internal individual coherence.
Testimony won't reduce to perception, if perception depends on social concepts and categories [Kusch]
     Full Idea: How can we hope to reduce testimony to perception if the way we perceive the world is to a considerable extent shaped by concepts and categories that we have learned from others?
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch. 4)
     A reaction: To me this sounds like good support for coherentism, the benign circle between my reason, my experience, and the testimony and reason of others. Asking how the circle could get started shows ignorance of biology.
A foundation is what is intelligible, hence from a rational source, and tending towards truth [Kusch]
     Full Idea: It can be argued that testimony is non-reductive because it relies on the fact that whatever is intelligible is likely to come from a rational source, and that rational sources, by their very nature, tend towards the truth.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch. 4 n7)
     A reaction: [He cites Tyler Burge 1993, 1997] If this makes testimony non-reductive, how would one assess whether the testimony is 'intelligible'?
Vindicating testimony is an expression of individualism [Kusch]
     Full Idea: To believe that testimony needs a general vindication is itself an expression of individualism.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Intro)
     A reaction: Kusch is a spokesman for Communitarian Epistemology. Surely we are allowed to identify the criteria for what makes a good witness? Ask a policeman.
13. Knowledge Criteria / C. External Justification / 8. Social Justification
Myths about lonely genius are based on epistemological individualism [Kusch]
     Full Idea: Many myths about the lonely scientific genius underwrite epistemological individualism.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch. 5)
     A reaction: They all actually say that they 'stood on the shoulders of giants', and they are invariably immersed in the contemporary researches of teams of like-minded people. How surprised were the really expert contemporaries by Newton, Einstein, Gödel?
Communitarian Epistemology says 'knowledge' is a social status granted to groups of people [Kusch]
     Full Idea: I propose 'communitarian epistemology' - claiming first that the term 'knowledge' marks a social status, and is dependent on the existence of communities, and second that this social status is typically granted to groups of people.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Intro)
     A reaction: I find this very congenial, though Kusch goes a little far when he claims that knowledge is largely created by social groups. He allows that Robinson Crusoe might have knowledge of his island, but can't give a decent account of it.
Private justification is justification to imagined other people [Kusch]
     Full Idea: Coming to convince myself is actually to form a pretend communal belief with pretend others, ..which is clearly parasitic on the case where the others are real.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch.11)
     A reaction: This slightly desperate move is a way for 'communitarian' epistemologists to deal with Robinson Crusoe cases. I think Kusch is right, but it is a bit hard to prove that this is what is 'actually' going on.
16. Persons / E. Rejecting the Self / 2. Self as Social Construct
To be considered 'an individual' is performed by a society [Kusch]
     Full Idea: One cannot even have the social status of 'being an individual' unless it has been conferred on one by a communal performative belief.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch.11)
     A reaction: This sounds crazy until you think of the mentality of a tenth generation slave in a fully slave-owning society.
17. Mind and Body / E. Mind as Physical / 7. Anti-Physicalism / b. Multiple realisability
Maybe a mollusc's brain events for pain ARE of the same type (broadly) as a human's [PG]
     Full Idea: To defend type-type identity against the multiple realisability objection, we might say that a molluscs's brain events that register pain ARE of the same type as humans, given that being 'of the same type' is a fairly flexible concept.
     From: PG (Db (ideas) [2031])
     A reaction: But this reduces 'of the same type' to such vagueness that it may become vacuous. You would be left with token-token identity, where the mental event is just identical to some brain event, with its 'type' being irrelevant.
Maybe a frog's brain events for fear are functionally like ours, but not phenomenally [PG]
     Full Idea: To defend type-type identity against the multiple realisability objection, we might (also) say that while a frog's brain events for fear are functionally identical to a human's (it runs away), that doesn't mean they are phenomenally identical.
     From: PG (Db (ideas) [2031])
     A reaction: I take this to be the key reply to the multiple realisability problem. If a frog flees from a loud noise, it is 'frightened' in a functional sense, but that still leaves the question 'What's it like to be a frightened frog?', which may differ from humans.
18. Thought / D. Concepts / 1. Concepts / a. Nature of concepts
Our experience may be conceptual, but surely not the world itself? [Kusch]
     Full Idea: I am unconvinced by McDowell's arguments in favour of treating the world as itself conceptual. Granted that our experience is conceptual in quality; it still does not follow that the world itself is conceptual.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch. 9)
     A reaction: I would take Kusch's point to be a given in any discussion of concepts, and McDowell as a non-starter on this one. I am inclined to believe that we do have non-conceptual experiences, but I take them to be epistemologically useless.
19. Language / F. Communication / 1. Rhetoric
Often socialising people is the only way to persuade them [Kusch]
     Full Idea: Often we can convince members of other cultures only by socializing them into our culture.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch.19)
     A reaction: This looks both true and interesting, and is good support for Kusch's communitarian epistemology. What actually persuades certainly doesn't have to be reasons, and may be almost entirely social.
23. Ethics / E. Utilitarianism / 4. Unfairness
Utilitarianism seems to justify the discreet murder of unhappy people [PG]
     Full Idea: If I discreetly murdered a gloomy and solitary tramp who was upsetting people in my village, if is hard to see how utilitarianism could demonstrate that I had done something wrong.
     From: PG (Db (ideas) [2031])
24. Political Theory / D. Ideologies / 7. Communitarianism / a. Communitarianism
Communitarianism in epistemology sees the community as the primary knower [Kusch]
     Full Idea: Communitarianism in epistemology sees the community as the primary knower.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch. 5)
     A reaction: This thought offers an account of epistemology which could fit in with communitarian political views. See the ideas of Martin Kusch in this database.
26. Natural Theory / B. Natural Kinds / 7. Critique of Kinds
Natural kinds are social institutions [Kusch]
     Full Idea: Natural kinds are social institutions.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch.11)
     A reaction: I can see what he means, but I take this to be deeply wrong. A clarification of what exactly is meant by a 'natural kind' is needed before we can make any progress with this one. Is a village a natural kind? Or a poodle? Or a shoal?
26. Natural Theory / D. Laws of Nature / 8. Scientific Essentialism / d. Knowing essences
Find the essence by varying an object, to see what remains invariable [Velarde-Mayol]
     Full Idea: Eidetic Reduction consists of producing variations in the individual object until we see what is invariable in it. What is invariable is its essence or Eidos.
     From: Victor Velarde-Mayol (On Husserl [2000], 3.2.2)
     A reaction: This strikes me as an excellent idea. It more or less describes the method of science. Chemical atoms were thought to be unsplittable, until someone tried a new variation for dealing with them.
27. Natural Reality / G. Biology / 2. Life
Life is Movement, Respiration, Sensation, Nutrition, Excretion, Reproduction, Growth (MRS NERG) [PG]
     Full Idea: The biologists' acronym for the necessary conditions of life is MRS NERG: that is, Movement, Respiration, Sensation, Nutrition, Excretion, Reproduction, Growth.
     From: PG (Db (ideas) [2031])
     A reaction: How strictly necessary are each of these is a point for discussion. A notorious problem case is fire, which (at a stretch) may pass all seven tests.
28. God / A. Divine Nature / 4. Divine Contradictions
An omniscient being couldn't know it was omniscient, as that requires information from beyond its scope of knowledge [PG]
     Full Idea: God seems to be in the paradoxical situation that He may be omniscient, but can never know that He is, because that involves knowing that there is nothing outside his scope of knowledge (e.g. another God)
     From: PG (Db (ideas) [2031])
Omniscience is incoherent, since knowledge is a social concept [Kusch]
     Full Idea: The very idea of omniscience is dubious, at least for the communitarian epistemologist, since knowing is a social state, and knowledge is a social status, needing a position in a social network.
     From: Martin Kusch (Knowledge by Agreement [2002], Ch. 4)
     A reaction: A nice test case. Would an omniscient mind have evidence for its beliefs? Would it continually check for coherence? Is it open to criticism? Does it even entertain the possibility of error? Could another 'omniscient' mind challenge it?
How could God know there wasn't an unknown force controlling his 'free' will? [PG]
     Full Idea: How could God be certain that he has free will (if He has), if He couldn't be sure that there wasn't an unknown force controlling his will?
     From: PG (Db (ideas) [2031])