structure for 'Political Theory'    |     alphabetical list of themes    |     unexpand these ideas

24. Political Theory / B. Nature of a State / 4. Citizenship

[qualifications, duties and rights of a citizen]

34 ideas
People doing their jobs properly is the fourth cardinal virtue for a city [Plato]
     Full Idea: The power that consists in everyone's doing his own work rivals wisdom, moderation, and courage in its contribution to the virtue of the city.
     From: Plato (The Republic [c.374 BCE], 433d)
     A reaction: Making conscientious the fourth cardinal virtue. Well said! My maxim for the modern world is that nearly all human misery consists of either bad health or other people not doing their jobs properly. You know I'm right.
Diogenes said he was a citizen of the world [Diogenes of Sin., by Diog. Laertius]
     Full Idea: Diogenes said he was a citizen of no country, but of the world.
     From: report of Diogenes (Sin) (reports [c.360 BCE]) by Diogenes Laertius - Lives of Eminent Philosophers 06.Di.6
A citizen is someone who is allowed to hold official posts in a city [Aristotle]
     Full Idea: Whoever is authorised to share in deliberative or judicial office …is a citizen of the relevant city.
     From: Aristotle (Politics [c.332 BCE], 1275b18)
     A reaction: Interesting, and perhaps a bit surprising for us. We tend to assume that in a democracy the citizens are those allowed to vote, but he says what matters is being allowed to hold an office. Log cabin to White House. He's right.
The virtues of a good citizen are relative to a particular constitution [Aristotle]
     Full Idea: The virtue of the citizen must be in relation to the constitution; and as there are many constitutions, there cannot be just one single and perfect virtue of the sound citizen.
     From: Aristotle (Politics [c.332 BCE], 1276b28)
     A reaction: This is very striking support for the view that Aristotle's account of the virtues in 'Ethics' is merely a description of conventions (Athenian, presumably), rather than an appeal to nature. However, see his account of the soul, and human function.
A person can be an excellent citizen without being an excellent man [Aristotle]
     Full Idea: It is possible for someone to be an excellent citizen without having acquired the virtue in accord with which someone is an excellent man. …[1278b02] In one sort of city the good man and the excellent citizen are the same.
     From: Aristotle (Politics [c.332 BCE], 1276b33)
     A reaction: Thus confutes my simple summary of Aristotelian ethics as 'be a good citizen!'. He thinks leaders of communities must be excellent men. You can fulfil a role in the city (soldier, doctor, cleaner) without all-round excellence (see 1276b39).
The middle classes are neither ambitious nor anarchic, which is good [Aristotle]
     Full Idea: Those in the middle [in wealth] are least inclined either to avoid rule or to be eager to rule, both of which things are harmful to cities.
     From: Aristotle (Politics [c.332 BCE], 1295b12)
     A reaction: How nice to hear something good about the poor old middle classes - the hated bourgeoisie of the marxists, looked down on by the snobbish elite. They avoid the black market, and bribery for offices.
A citizen should only consider what is good for the whole society [Epictetus]
     Full Idea: The calling of a citizen is to consider nothing in terms of personal advantage, never to deliberate on anything as though detached from the whole, but be like our hand or foot.
     From: Epictetus (The Discourses [c.56], 2.10.04)
     A reaction: Fat chance of that in an aggressively capitalist society. I've always voted for what I thought was the common good, and was shocked to gradually realise that many people only vote for what promotes their own interests. Heigh ho.
A citizen is committed to ignore private advantage, and seek communal good [Epictetus]
     Full Idea: The commitment of the citizen is to have no private advantage, not to deliberate about anything as though one were a separate part.
     From: Epictetus (The Discourses [c.56], 2.10.04)
     A reaction: This is the modern problem of whether democratic voters are choosing for themselves or for the community. I think we should make an active effort at every election to persuade voters to aim for the communal good. Cf Rawls.
Children are not born into citizenship of a state [Locke]
     Full Idea: It is plain, by the practices of governments themselves, as well as by the laws of right reason, that a child is born a subject of no country nor government.
     From: John Locke (Second Treatise of Government [1690], 118)
     A reaction: At what age do they become citizens, given that there is no induction ceremony? If a small British child were attacked overseas, we would expect the British government to defend its rights.
Anyone who enjoys the benefits of a state has given tacit consent to be part of it [Locke]
     Full Idea: Every man that hath any possession or enjoyment of any part of the dominions of any government doth thereby give his tacit consent, and is as far forth obliged to obedience to the laws of that government, during such enjoyment.
     From: John Locke (Second Treatise of Government [1690], 119)
     A reaction: I wondered at the age of about 18 whether I had given tacit consent to be a British citizen. Locke says you only have to travel freely down the highways to give consent! We are all free, of course, to apply for citizenship elsewhere. But Idea 19894.
You can only become an actual member of a commonwealth by an express promise [Locke]
     Full Idea: Nothing can make any man a subject or member of a commonwealth but his actually entering into it by positive engagement, and express promise and compact.
     From: John Locke (Second Treatise of Government [1690], 122)
     A reaction: In practice the indigenous population never do this. But it a clear distinction for foreign residents in any country. States cannot induct resident foreigners into their army, or allow them to vote.
We all owe labour in return for our keep, and every idle citizen is a thief [Rousseau]
     Full Idea: In a society where a man has to live at others' expense, he owes in labour the price of his keep; and that is without exception. Work, then, is an indispensable social obligation. Rich or poor, powerful or weak, every idle citizen is a thief.
     From: Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Emile: treatise on education [1762], Bk III)
     A reaction: Presumably rich landowners who live on rents can justify their position by good husbandry, at a higher level than tilling the soil. But Bertie Wooster won't last long in Rousseau's new world. This is a big challenge to the welfare state.
Citizens should be independent of each other, and very dependent on the state [Rousseau]
     Full Idea: Each citizen should be perfectly independent of all the others and excessively dependent on the city.
     From: Jean-Jacques Rousseau (The Social Contract (tr Cress) [1762], II.12)
     A reaction: Unlike many other of his pronouncements, this sounds a bit like a welfare state, though I doubt if he means that. Rousseau's state, founded by the general will, seems to have a quasi-religious quality, like a devotee's love of God.
A citizen is a subject who is also sovereign [Rousseau]
     Full Idea: The words 'subject' and 'sovereign' are identical correlatives, whose meaning is combined in the single word 'citizen'.
     From: Jean-Jacques Rousseau (The Social Contract (tr Cress) [1762], III.13)
     A reaction: 'Citizen' was the favourite post-revolutionary label, probably based on this remark. I've heard foreigners tease Britons for being 'subjects' of the monarch, where they are pure citizens. But we are all subject to the law, made by others.
A citizen must control his own life, and possess property or an important skill [Kant]
     Full Idea: The only qualification required by a citizen (apart, of course, from being an adult male) is that he must be his own master, and must have some property (which can include any skill, trade, fine art or science) to support himself.
     From: Immanuel Kant (True in Theory, but not in Practice [1792], 2-3)
     A reaction: Of course! Being one's own master evidently allows for being an employee, as long as this is a free contract, and not exploitation. Invites lots of interesting test cases. We need a Marxist commentary on this idea.
Individuals must dedicate themselves to the ethical whole, and give their lives when asked [Hegel]
     Full Idea: The individual person is a subordinate entity who must dedicate himself to the ethical whole. Consequently, if the state demands his life, the individual must surrender it.
     From: Georg W.F.Hegel (Elements of the Philosophy of Right [1821], 070 add)
     A reaction: The obvious problem is a war which is perceived to be unjust. Vietnam draft dodgers. We should always consider the common good, but 'dedicate himself to the ethical whole'? It depends whether the ethical whole is dedicated to us.
Social groups must focus on the state, which must in turn respect their inclusion and their will [Hegel]
     Full Idea: The interests of family and civil society must concentrate themselves on the state, although the universal end cannot be advanced without the personal knowledge and will of its particular members, whose own rights must be maintained.
     From: Georg W.F.Hegel (Elements of the Philosophy of Right [1821], 260), quoted by Stephen Houlgate - An Introduction to Hegel 08 'Freedom'
     A reaction: Hegel's emphasis on the state has sometimes allowed him to be presented as a proto-fascist, so the second half of this is important - especially the remark about citizens having 'knowledge' of what is going on. Is citizen commitment conditional on this?
People can achieve respect for their state by insight into its essence [Hegel]
     Full Idea: The best way for humans to achieve respect for the state as that whole of which they are branches is through philosophical insight into its essence.
     From: Georg W.F.Hegel (Elements of the Philosophy of Right [1821], 270 add)
     A reaction: Although Hegel on the state can be quite alarming, I rather approve of this Aristotelian thought. States do not, of course, have ready made essences awaiting the insights of philosophers, but discussion can converge on a concept of what the state is.
The ideal is a society in which all citizens are ladies and gentlemen [Green,TH]
     Full Idea: With all seriousness and reverence we may hope and pray for a condition of English society in which all honest citizens will recognise themselves and be recognised by each other as gentlemen.
     From: T.H. Green (works [1875]), quoted by John H. Muirhead - The Service of the State IV
     A reaction: Call me old fashioned but, as long as we expand this to include ladies, I like this thought. Chaucer's knight (in his Prologue) should be our national role model. The true gentleman is an Aristotelian ideal.
Enfranchisement is an end in itself; it makes a person moral, and gives a basis for respect [Green,TH]
     Full Idea: Enfranchisement of the people is an end in itself. …Only citizenship makes the moral man; only citizenship gives that respect which is the true basis of the respect for others.
     From: T.H. Green (works [1875], iii:436), quoted by John H. Muirhead - The Service of the State IV
     A reaction: Should people respect their betters? If so, that is a sort of deferential respect which is different from the mutual respect between equals. That said, I wholly approve of this idea.
Nietzsche thinks we should join a society, in order to criticise, heal and renew it [Nietzsche, by Richardson]
     Full Idea: Nietzsche thinks the best way of both joining and opposing a society is to find where it's sick, to be its merciless critic and exposer, and to help heal and renew it.
     From: report of Friedrich Nietzsche (Works (refs to 8 vol Colli and Montinari) [1885]) by John Richardson - Nietzsche's System 3.3
     A reaction: This sounds like the great Victorian sages, such as Ruskin and Arnold. Christopher Hitchens was a nice recent example. Maybe these have been the finest British citizens?
We all need to partipate in public tasks, and take some initiative [Weil]
     Full Idea: The human soul has need of disciplined participation in a common task of public value, and it has need of personal initiative within this participation.
     From: Simone Weil (Draft Statement of Human Obligations [1943], p.229)
     A reaction: The intrusion of competitive capitalism into almost every area of modern life has more or less eliminated such activities. Only state employees now have such satisfactions, on the whole. I admire Weil's approach here.
Even the poorest should feel collective ownership, and participation in grand display [Weil]
     Full Idea: Participation in collective possessions is important. Where real civic life exists, each feels he has a personal ownership in the public monuments, gardens, ceremonial pomp and circumstances; sumptuousness is thus place within the reach of the poorest.
     From: Simone Weil (The Need for Roots [1943], I 'Collective')
     A reaction: OK with gardens. Dubious about fobbing the poor off with pomp. Monuments are a modern controversy, when they turn out to commemorate slavery and colonial conquest. I agree with her basic thought.
A citizen should be able to understand the whole of society [Weil]
     Full Idea: A man needs to be able to encompass in thought the entire range of activity of the social organism to which he belongs.
     From: Simone Weil (The Need for Roots [1943], I 'Responsibility')
     A reaction: She is urging the active involvement of citizens in decision making - for which they need appropriate knowledge.
Citizenship involves a group of mutually supporting rights, which create community and equality [Miller,D]
     Full Idea: The idea of citizenship is that rights support each other. Protective and welfare rights provide a basis for a political role. This underpins a sense of membership, and an obligation to provide welfare. Rights confer equal status and self-respect.
     From: David Miller (Community and Citizenship [1989], 3)
     A reaction: A helpful eludation of what a richer concept of citizenship than mere membership might look like. Communitarians have a different concept of rights from that of liberals.
Some liberals thinks checks and balances are enough, without virtuous citizens [Kymlicka]
     Full Idea: Many classical liberals believed that a liberal democracy could function effectively even in the absence of an especially virtuous citizenry, by creating checks and balances. …One set of private interests would check another set of private interests.
     From: Will Kymlicka (Contemporary Political Philosophy (2nd edn) [2002], 7)
     A reaction: This seems to be the view of those who think a completely free market will evolve into a flourishing and just society. There is a basic debate about the importance of the character of the citizens in any polity. Marxists say they are entangled.
Good citizens need civic virtues of loyalty, independence, diligence, respect, etc. [Kymlicka]
     Full Idea: Galston says responsible citizenship requires four types of civic virtue: general (law-abiding, loyal), social (independent, open-minded), economic (diligent, restrained, adaptable), and political (respect, sensible, judgement, engagement).
     From: Will Kymlicka (Contemporary Political Philosophy (2nd edn) [2002], 7)
     A reaction: [Galston's 'Liberal Purposes' 1991] (compressed) This immediately seems to be asking too much, especially for those who know little, or are short of money.
Liberals accept that people need society, but Aristotelians must show that they need political activity [Kymlicka]
     Full Idea: To defend Aristotelian republicanism it is not enough to show that individual require society - liberals do not deny this. They must also show that individuals need to be politically active.
     From: Will Kymlicka (Contemporary Political Philosophy (2nd edn) [2002], 7)
     A reaction: Interesting. People are not just inactive because they have been rendered powerless. In any group of people there are some who are keen to have a voice, or lead, and others who are largely happy to follow.
Minimal liberal citizenship needs common civility, as well as mere non-interference [Kymlicka]
     Full Idea: Minimal citizenship is often seen as simply requiring non-interference with others, but that ignores a basic requirement of liberal citizenship, which is the social virtue of 'civility' or 'decency'.
     From: Will Kymlicka (Contemporary Political Philosophy (2nd edn) [2002], 7)
     A reaction: He makes the point that the minimal requirement has to be given up when there is a crisis, which needs much more involvement. This largely describes modern Britain, prior to the Brexit rift.
Modern non-discrimination obliges modern citizens to treat each other as equals [Kymlicka]
     Full Idea: The extension of non-discrimination from government to civil society …involves a radical extension of the obligations of liberal citizenship. The obligation to treat people as equal citizens now applies to everyday decisions.
     From: Will Kymlicka (Contemporary Political Philosophy (2nd edn) [2002], 7)
     A reaction: This is very difficult for an older generation who felt their 'entitlement' as leading citizens, or who routinely favoured their local traditional community. But they just have to 'get over it'!
The right wing sees citizenship in terms of responsibility to earn a living, rather than rights [Kymlicka]
     Full Idea: According to the New Right, to promote active citizenship-for-all or entitlements, we must focus instead on people's responsibility to earn a living.
     From: Will Kymlicka (Contemporary Political Philosophy (2nd edn) [2002], 7)
     A reaction: Every creature has to earn a living, but one method is to successfully sponge off others. A cushy job is a sort of sponging. An excessively well paid job is a sort of sponging. Citizenship must involve responsibilities of some sort.
Citizenship is easier than parenthood [Kekes]
     Full Idea: It is much easier to be a good citizen than it is to be a good parent.
     From: John Kekes (Against Liberalism [1997], 09.4)
     A reaction: A nice observation. It is shocking how many people are bad citizens, given the limited demands. I think philosophers have some responsibility for beliefs and values which people bring to their citizenship. Parents need communal support.
A person's voice may count because of their interests, or because of their good sense [Sen]
     Full Idea: A person's voice may count either because her interests are involved, or because he reasoning and judgement can enlighten a discussion.
     From: Amartya Sen (The Idea of Justice [2009], 04 'Diversity')
     A reaction: Good. Inarticulate people may have strong interests, and articulate and helpful people may be wholly disinterested. But people may have unworthy interests, and may be articulate but not sensible.
Cosmopolitans reject the right of different states to distribute resources in different ways [Swift]
     Full Idea: Cosmopolitans who claim that the same distributive principles should apply to all human beings seem to be denying that different states may make different judgements about how they want to allocate resources among their members.
     From: Adam Swift (Political Philosophy (3rd ed) [2014], 1 'Social')
     A reaction: If you want to be a citizen of the world, you have to face up to the pluralistic character of cultures. Do you thereby want to be a citizen of both California and Saudi Arabia? Or are you actually just becoming a citizen of nowhere?