Ideas of Plato, by Theme

[Greek, 428 - 347 BCE, Athenian pupil of Socrates. Founded Academy in Athens 385. Travelled to Italy and Sicily. Taught Aristotle. Died in Athens.]

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1. Philosophy / A. Wisdom / 1. Nature of Wisdom
1922 Spiritual qualities only become advantageous with the growth of wisdom
14179 The finest branch of wisdom is justice and moderation in ordering states and families
354 Wisdom makes virtue and true goodness possible
13786 Wisdom is called 'beautiful', because it performs fine works
1. Philosophy / A. Wisdom / 2. Wise People
13780 Good people are no different from wise ones
2136 Philosophers become as divine and orderly as possible, by studying divinity and order
1. Philosophy / A. Wisdom / 3. Wisdom Deflated
291 Don't assume that wisdom is the automatic consequence of old age
1. Philosophy / C. History of Philosophy / 2. Ancient Philosophy / b. Pre-Socratic philosophy
3060 Plato never mentions Democritus, and wished to burn his books [Diog. Laertius]
1. Philosophy / D. Nature of Philosophy / 1. Philosophy
162 Can we understand an individual soul without knowing the soul in general?
326 For relaxation one can consider the world of change, instead of eternal things
1. Philosophy / D. Nature of Philosophy / 2. Invocation to Philosophy
160 The highest ability in man is the ability to discuss unity and plurality in the nature of things
1642 We must fight fiercely for knowledge, understanding and intelligence
315 Philosophy is the supreme gift of the gods to mortals
1. Philosophy / D. Nature of Philosophy / 5. Aims of Philosophy / b. Philosophy as transcendent
370 Philosophy is a purification of the soul ready for the afterlife
1. Philosophy / D. Nature of Philosophy / 5. Aims of Philosophy / e. Philosophy as reason
15447 We shouldn't always follow where the argument leads! [Lewis]
1. Philosophy / D. Nature of Philosophy / 7. Despair over Philosophy
125 Is a gifted philosopher unmanly if he avoids the strife of the communal world?
2056 Philosophers are always switching direction to something more interesting
1. Philosophy / F. Analytic Philosophy / 2. Analysis by Division
2083 Either a syllable is its letters (making parts as knowable as whole) or it isn't (meaning it has no parts)
2086 Understanding mainly involves knowing the elements, not their combinations
166 A speaker should be able to divide a subject, right down to the limits of divisibility
16123 Whenever you perceive a community of things, you should also hunt out differences in the group
1. Philosophy / F. Analytic Philosophy / 7. Limitations of Analysis
1645 The desire to split everything into its parts is unpleasant and unphilosophical
2. Reason / A. Nature of Reason / 1. On Reason
224 When questions are doubtful we should concentrate not on objects but on ideas of the intellect
243 It is foolish to quarrel with the mind's own reasoning processes
2. Reason / A. Nature of Reason / 3. Pure Reason
350 In investigation the body leads us astray, but the soul gets a clear view of the facts
2. Reason / A. Nature of Reason / 4. Aims of Reason
241 We ought to follow where the argument leads us
2. Reason / A. Nature of Reason / 6. Coherence
2082 A rational account is essentially a weaving together of things with names
2. Reason / A. Nature of Reason / 7. Status of Reason
362 The greatest misfortune for a person is to develop a dislike for argument
2. Reason / A. Nature of Reason / 9. Limits of Reason
21264 Mortals are incapable of being fully rational
2. Reason / B. Laws of Thought / 2. Sufficient Reason
306 Nothing can come to be without a cause
2. Reason / B. Laws of Thought / 4. Contraries
192 Only one thing can be contrary to something
2. Reason / B. Laws of Thought / 5. Opposites
232 Opposites are as unlike as possible
2. Reason / C. Styles of Reason / 1. Dialectic
13778 A dialectician is someone who knows how to ask and to answer questions
2151 Dialectic is the only method of inquiry which uproots the things which it takes for granted
2154 The ability to take an overview is the distinguishing mark of a dialectician
4011 For Plato, rationality is a vision of and love of a cosmic rational order [Taylor,C]
8937 Plato's 'Parmenides' is the greatest artistic achievement of the ancient dialectic [Hegel]
287 Good analysis involves dividing things into appropriate forms without confusion
1644 Dialectic should only be taught to those who already philosophise well
2. Reason / C. Styles of Reason / 2. Elenchus
1654 In "Gorgias" Socrates is confident that his 'elenchus' will decide moral truth [Vlastos]
4321 We should test one another, by asking and answering questions
2093 You must never go against what you actually believe
20478 In discussion a person's opinions are shown to be in conflict, leading to calm self-criticism
2. Reason / C. Styles of Reason / 3. Eristic
2130 People often merely practice eristic instead of dialectic, because they don't analyse the subject-matter
2052 Eristic discussion is aggressive, but dialectic aims to help one's companions in discussion
2. Reason / D. Definition / 2. Aims of Definition
16125 To reveal a nature, divide down, and strip away what it has in common with other things
16124 No one wants to define 'weaving' just for the sake of weaving
2. Reason / D. Definition / 4. Real Definition
15854 A primary element has only a name, and no logos, but complexes have an account, by weaving the names
3. Truth / A. Truth Problems / 3. Value of Truth
251 Truth has the supreme value, for both gods and men
3. Truth / C. Correspondence Truth / 1. Correspondence Truth
13776 Truths say of what is that it is, falsehoods say of what is that it is not
4. Formal Logic / B. Propositional Logic PL / 2. Tools of Propositional Logic / e. Axioms of PL
2145 In mathematics certain things have to be accepted without further explanation
4. Formal Logic / G. Formal Mereology / 1. Mereology
15845 It seems absurd that seeing a person's limbs, the one is many, and yet the many are one
5. Theory of Logic / F. Referring in Logic / 1. Naming / a. Names
13777 A name is a sort of tool
13791 Things must be known before they are named, so it can't be the names that give us knowledge
13790 A name-giver might misname something, then force other names to conform to it
5. Theory of Logic / F. Referring in Logic / 1. Naming / c. Names as referential
13789 Anyone who knows a thing's name also knows the thing
5. Theory of Logic / L. Paradox / 2. Aporiai
11259 How can you seek knowledge of something if you don't know it?
5. Theory of Logic / L. Paradox / 3. Antinomies
13986 Plato found antinomies in ideas, Kant in space and time, and Bradley in relations [Ryle]
14150 Plato's 'Parmenides' is perhaps the best collection of antinomies ever made [Russell]
6. Mathematics / A. Nature of Mathematics / 2. Geometry
8726 Geometry can lead the mind upwards to truth and philosophy
9867 It is absurd to define a circle, but not be able to recognise a real one
6. Mathematics / A. Nature of Mathematics / 4. Using Numbers / f. Arithmetic
13155 If you add one to one, which one becomes two, or do they both become two?
9865 Daily arithmetic counts unequal things, but pure arithmetic equalises them
6. Mathematics / C. Sources of Mathematics / 1. Mathematical Platonism / a. For mathematical platonism
8727 Geometry is not an activity, but the study of unchanging knowledge
9863 We aim for elevated discussion of pure numbers, not attaching them to physical objects
9864 In pure numbers, all ones are equal, with no internal parts
10216 We master arithmetic by knowing all the numbers in our soul
16150 One is, so numbers exist, so endless numbers exist, and each one must partake of being
6. Mathematics / C. Sources of Mathematics / 4. Mathematical Empiricism / c. Against mathematical empiricism
9861 The same thing is both one and an unlimited number at the same time
7. Existence / A. Nature of Existence / 3. Being / c. Becoming
9862 To become rational, philosophers must rise from becoming into being
229 The one was and is and will be and was becoming and is becoming and will become
20364 The apprehensions of reason remain unchanging, but reasonless sensation shows mere becoming
324 Before the existence of the world there must have been being, space and becoming
7. Existence / A. Nature of Existence / 3. Being / d. Non-being
11278 What does 'that which is not' refer to?
7. Existence / A. Nature of Existence / 3. Being / e. Being and nothing
1643 If statements about non-existence are logically puzzling, so are statements about existence
7. Existence / A. Nature of Existence / 3. Being / f. Primary being
21818 Being depends on the Good, which is not itself being, but superior to being
21821 Plato's Parmenides has a three-part theory, of Primal One, a One-Many, and a One-and-Many [Plotinus]
7. Existence / A. Nature of Existence / 6. Criterion for Existence
7022 To be is to have a capacity, to act on other things, or to receive actions
7. Existence / B. Change in Existence / 1. Nature of Change
2063 How can beauty have identity if it changes?
2061 The best things (gods, healthy bodies, good souls) are least liable to change
2060 There seem to be two sorts of change: alteration and motion
7. Existence / C. Structure of Existence / 8. Stuff / b. Mixtures
15857 Any mixture which lacks measure and proportion doesn't even count as a mixture at all
14503 If a mixture does not contain measure and proportion, it is corrupted and destroyed
7. Existence / D. Theories of Reality / 1. Realism
7953 Reasoning needs to cut nature accurately at the joints
7. Existence / D. Theories of Reality / 2. Reality
6562 Plato's reality has unchanging Parmenidean forms, and Heraclitean flux [Fogelin]
221 Absolute ideas, such as the Good and the Beautiful, cannot be known by us
7. Existence / D. Theories of Reality / 5. Physicalism
1641 Some alarming thinkers think that only things which you can touch exist
7. Existence / D. Theories of Reality / 10. Ontological Commitment / a. Ontological commitment
10784 Whenever there's speech it has to be about something
7. Existence / E. Categories / 2. Categorisation
13775 We only succeed in cutting if we use appropriate tools, not if we approach it randomly
16121 I revere anyone who can discern a single thing that encompasses many things
8. Modes of Existence / A. Relations / 2. Internal Relations
21347 If Simmias is taller than Socrates, that isn't a feature that is just in Simmias
8. Modes of Existence / A. Relations / 3. Structural Relations
14502 Plato's idea of 'structure' tends to be mathematically expressed [Koslicki]
8. Modes of Existence / D. Universals / 2. Need for Universals
2142 The plurality of beautiful things must belong to a single class, because they have a single particular character
153 It takes a person to understand, by using universals, and by using reason to create a unity out of sense-impressions
227 You must always mean the same thing when you utter the same name
223 If you deny that each thing always stays the same, you destroy the possibility of discussion
8. Modes of Existence / D. Universals / 6. Platonic Forms / a. Platonic Forms
1607 Diotima said the Forms are the objects of desire in philosophical discourse [Roochnik]
360 We must have a prior knowledge of equality, if we see 'equal' things and realise they fall short of it
17948 Plato's Forms meant that the sophists only taught the appearance of wisdom and virtue [Nehamas]
3039 When Diogenes said he could only see objects but not their forms, Plato said it was because he had eyes but no intellect [Diog. Laertius]
20906 Platonists argue for the indivisible triangle-in-itself [Aristotle]
12043 Forms are not universals, as they don't cover every general term [Annas]
5094 Plato's Forms are said to have no location in space [Aristotle]
2159 Craftsmen making furniture refer to the form, but no one manufactures the form of furniture
154 We would have an overpowering love of knowledge if we had a pure idea of it - as with the other Forms
211 If admirable things have Forms, maybe everything else does as well
220 The concept of a master includes the concept of a slave
16151 Plato moves from Forms to a theory of genera and principles in his later work [Frede,M]
228 Greatness and smallness must exist, to be opposed to one another, and come into being in things
219 If absolute ideas existed in us, they would cease to be absolute
210 It would be absurd to think there were abstract Forms for vile things like hair, mud and dirt
16122 Good thinkers spot forms spread through things, or included within some larger form
10422 The not-beautiful is part of the beautiful, though opposed to it, and is just as real
12042 Plato's Forms were seen as part of physics, rather than of metaphysics [Annas]
307 Something will always be well-made if the maker keeps in mind the eternal underlying pattern
318 In addition to the underlying unchanging model and a changing copy of it, there must also be a foundation of all change
321 For knowledge and true opinion to be different there must be Forms; otherwise we are just stuck with sensations
8. Modes of Existence / D. Universals / 6. Platonic Forms / b. Partaking
1 There is only one source for all beauty
368 Other things are named after the Forms because they participate in them
304 Beautiful things must be different from beauty itself, but beauty itself must be present in each of them
556 If there is one Form for both the Form and its participants, they must have something in common [Aristotle]
17 A Form applies to a set of particular things with the same name
215 If things partake of ideas, this implies either that everything thinks, or that everything actually is thought
216 If things are made alike by participating in something, that thing will be the absolute idea
218 Participation is not by means of similarity, so we are looking for some other method of participation
212 The whole idea of each Form must be found in each thing which participates in it
213 Each idea is in all its participants at once, just as daytime is a unity but in many separate places at once
4447 If the good is one, is it unchanged when it is in particulars, and is it then separated from itself?
317 The universe is basically an intelligible and unchanging model, and a visible and changing copy of it
8. Modes of Existence / D. Universals / 6. Platonic Forms / c. Self-predication
190 If asked whether justice itself is just or unjust, you would have to say that it is just
563 If gods are like men, they are just eternal men; similarly, Forms must differ from particulars [Aristotle]
217 Nothing can be like an absolute idea, because a third idea intervenes to make them alike (leading to a regress)
214 If absolute greatness and great things are seen as the same, another thing appears which makes them seem great
8. Modes of Existence / D. Universals / 6. Platonic Forms / d. Forms critiques
565 The Forms cannot be changeless if they are in changing things [Aristotle]
557 A Form is a cause of things only in the way that white mixed with white is a cause [Aristotle]
12122 Plato mistakenly thought forms were totally abstracted away from matter [Bacon]
5574 Plato's Forms not only do not come from the senses, but they are beyond possibility of sensing [Kant]
9. Objects / A. Existence of Objects / 2. Abstract Objects / a. Nature of abstracta
9607 The greatest discovery in human thought is Plato's discovery of abstract objects [Brown,JR]
9. Objects / A. Existence of Objects / 5. Individuation / a. Individuation
13263 We can grasp whole things in science, because they have a mathematics and a teleology [Koslicki]
9. Objects / A. Existence of Objects / 5. Individuation / d. Individuation by haecceity
13787 Doesn't each thing have an essence, just as it has other qualities?
9. Objects / A. Existence of Objects / 6. Nihilism about Objects
15855 If we see everything as separate, we can then give no account of it
9. Objects / B. Unity of Objects / 1. Unifying an Object / a. Intrinsic unification
13261 Plato sees an object's structure as expressible in mathematics [Koslicki]
13265 Plato was less concerned than Aristotle with the source of unity in a complex object [Koslicki]
9. Objects / B. Unity of Objects / 1. Unifying an Object / b. Unifying aggregates
15851 Parts must belong to a created thing with a distinct form
9. Objects / B. Unity of Objects / 1. Unifying an Object / c. Unity as conceptual
15856 A thing can become one or many, depending on how we talk about it
9. Objects / B. Unity of Objects / 2. Substance / c. Types of substance
593 Plato's holds that there are three substances: Forms, mathematical entities, and perceptible bodies [Aristotle]
9. Objects / C. Structure of Objects / 5. Composition of an Object
15846 In Parmenides, if composition is identity, a whole is nothing more than its parts [Harte,V]
374 If one object is divided into its parts, someone can then say that one are many and many is one
9. Objects / C. Structure of Objects / 8. Parts of Objects / a. Parts of objects
2084 If a word has no parts and has a single identity, it turns out to be the same kind of thing as a letter
15850 Anything which has parts must be one thing, and parts are of a one, not of a many
15849 Plato says only a one has parts, and a many does not [Harte,V]
9. Objects / C. Structure of Objects / 8. Parts of Objects / c. Wholes from parts
13260 Plato says wholes are either containers, or they're atomic, or they don't exist [Koslicki]
15843 The whole can't be the parts, because it would be all of the parts, which is the whole
15844 A sum is that from which nothing is lacking, which is a whole
13259 It seems that the One must be composed of parts, which contradicts its being one
9. Objects / D. Essence of Objects / 2. Types of Essence
11237 Only universals have essence [Politis]
9. Objects / D. Essence of Objects / 3. Individual Essences
13774 Things don't have every attribute, and essence isn't private, so each thing has an essence
9. Objects / D. Essence of Objects / 4. Essence as Definition
21259 To grasp a thing we need its name, its definition, and what it really is
9. Objects / D. Essence of Objects / 6. Essence as Unifier
11238 Plato and Aristotle take essence to make a thing what it is [Politis]
9. Objects / D. Essence of Objects / 15. Against Essentialism
13772 Is the being or essence of each thing private to each person?
9. Objects / E. Objects over Time / 9. Ship of Theseus
16516 The ship which Theseus took to Crete is now sent to Delos crowned with flowers
9. Objects / F. Identity among Objects / 6. Identity between Objects
15847 Two things relate either as same or different, or part of a whole, or the whole of the part
9. Objects / F. Identity among Objects / 7. Indiscernible Objects
13788 If we made a perfect duplicate of Cratylus, there would be two Cratyluses
11. Knowledge Aims / A. Knowledge / 1. Knowledge
16120 Knowing how to achieve immortality is pointless without the knowledge how to use immortality
2133 Knowledge must be of the permanent unchanging nature of things
2080 Things are only knowable if a rational account (logos) is possible
11. Knowledge Aims / A. Knowledge / 2. Understanding
16126 Expertise is knowledge of the whole by means of the parts
11. Knowledge Aims / A. Knowledge / 3. Value of Knowledge
20219 True opinions only become really valuable when they are tied down by reasons
20185 The most important things in life are wisdom and knowledge
20184 The only real evil is loss of knowledge
11. Knowledge Aims / A. Knowledge / 4. Belief / c. Aim of beliefs
2050 It is impossible to believe something which is held to be false
11. Knowledge Aims / A. Knowledge / 4. Belief / d. Cause of beliefs
2076 How can a belief exist if its object doesn't exist?
11. Knowledge Aims / B. Certain Knowledge / 1. Certainty
389 How can you be certain about aspects of the world if they aren't constant?
12. Knowledge Sources / A. A Priori Knowledge / 3. Innate Knowledge / b. Recollection doctrine
5985 Seeking and learning are just recollection
359 If we feel the inadequacy of a resemblance, we must recollect the original
357 People are obviously recollecting when they react to a geometrical diagram
5961 The soul gets its goodness from god, and its evil from previous existence.
12. Knowledge Sources / A. A Priori Knowledge / 6. A Priori from Reason
9343 To achieve pure knowledge, we must get rid of the body and contemplate things with the soul
12. Knowledge Sources / B. Perception / 1. Perception
2067 Our senses could have been separate, but they converge on one mind
2045 Perception is infallible, suggesting that it is knowledge
12. Knowledge Sources / C. Rationalism / 1. Rationalism
2162 If theory and practice conflict, the best part of the mind accepts theory, so the other part is of lower grade
2069 Thought must grasp being itself before truth becomes possible
2068 With what physical faculty do we perceive pairs of opposed abstract qualities?
2078 You might mistake eleven for twelve in your senses, but not in your mind
151 True knowledge is of the reality behind sense experience
1637 A soul without understanding is ugly
334 Only bird-brained people think astronomy is entirely a matter of evidence
13. Knowledge Criteria / A. Justification Problems / 1. Justification / b. Need for justification
1923 As a guide to action, true opinion is as good as knowledge
174 True opinion without reason is midway between wisdom and ignorance
2140 True belief without knowledge is like blind people on the right road
2089 An inadequate rational account would still not justify knowledge
13. Knowledge Criteria / A. Justification Problems / 2. Justification Challenges / a. Agrippa's trilemma
2085 Parts and wholes are either equally knowable or equally unknowable
2091 Without distinguishing marks, how do I know what my beliefs are about?
13. Knowledge Criteria / A. Justification Problems / 3. Internal or External / a. Pro-internalism
2087 A rational account might be seeing an image of one's belief, like a reflection in a mirror
2090 A rational account involves giving an image, or analysis, or giving a differentiating mark
13. Knowledge Criteria / B. Internal Justification / 4. Foundationalism / a. Foundationalism
2081 Maybe primary elements can be named, but not receive a rational account
13. Knowledge Criteria / B. Internal Justification / 5. Coherentism / b. Pro-coherentism
2088 A rational account of a wagon would mean knowledge of its hundred parts
13. Knowledge Criteria / C. External Justification / 3. Reliabilism / a. Reliable knowledge
303 Say how many teeth the other has, then count them. If you are right, we will trust your other claims
13. Knowledge Criteria / D. Scepticism / 1. Scepticism
13792 There can't be any knowledge if things are constantly changing
13. Knowledge Criteria / D. Scepticism / 5. Dream Scepticism
2047 What evidence can be brought to show whether we are dreaming or not?
13. Knowledge Criteria / D. Scepticism / 6. Scepticism Critique
1919 You don't need to learn what you know, and how do you seek for what you don't know?
13. Knowledge Criteria / E. Relativism / 6. Relativism Critique
335 Do the gods also hold different opinions about what is right and honourable?
2054 Clearly some people are superior to others when it comes to medicine
2053 If you claim that all beliefs are true, that includes beliefs opposed to your own
2059 How can a relativist form opinions about what will happen in the future?
14. Science / A. Basis of Science / 5. Anomalies
165 If the apparent facts strongly conflict with probability, it is in everyone's interests to suppress the facts
14. Science / D. Explanation / 1. Explanation / b. Aims of explanation
17085 A good explanation totally rules out the opposite explanation (so Forms are required) [Ruben]
14. Science / D. Explanation / 2. Types of Explanation / g. Causal explanations
15859 To investigate the causes of things, study what is best for them
15. Nature of Minds / A. Nature of Mind / 1. Mind / e. Questions about mind
2096 Is the function of the mind management, authority and planning - or is it one's whole way of life?
15. Nature of Minds / A. Nature of Mind / 2. Psuche
13781 Soul causes the body to live, and gives it power to breathe and to be revitalized
6009 Psychic conflict is clear if appetite is close to the body and reason fairly separate [Modrak]
6041 There is a third element to the mind - spirit - lying between reason and appetite
9296 The soul is self-motion
5962 Plato says the soul is ordered by number [Plutarch]
21260 Soul is what is defined by 'self-generating motion'
15. Nature of Minds / A. Nature of Mind / 5. Unity of Mind
2127 The mind has parts, because we have inner conflicts
1737 The soul seems to have an infinity of parts [Aristotle]
15. Nature of Minds / A. Nature of Mind / 8. Brain
13154 Do we think and experience with blood, air or fire, or could it be our brain?
15. Nature of Minds / C. Capacities of Minds / 7. Seeing Resemblance
191 Everything resembles everything else up to a point
16. Persons / B. Nature of the Self / 3. Self as Non-physical
276 My individuality is my soul, which carries my body around
16. Persons / D. Continuity of the Self / 1. Identity and the Self
364 One soul can't be more or less of a soul than another
16. Persons / E. Rejecting the Self / 1. Self as Indeterminate
180 We call a person the same throughout life, but all their attributes change
181 Only the gods stay unchanged; we replace our losses with similar acquisitions
16. Persons / F. Free Will / 6. Determinism / a. Determinism
330 No one wants to be bad, but bad men result from physical and educational failures, which they do not want or choose
19. Language / F. Communication / 1. Rhetoric
114 Rhetoric can produce conviction, but not educate people about right and wrong
116 Rhetoric is irrational about its means and its ends
3324 Plato's whole philosophy may be based on being duped by reification - a figure of speech [Benardete,JA]
5945 The 'Republic' is a great work of rhetorical theory [Lawson-Tancred]
159 Only a good philosopher can be a good speaker
5946 'Phaedrus' pioneers the notion of philosophical rhetoric [Lawson-Tancred]
158 An excellent speech seems to imply a knowledge of the truth in the mind of the speaker
283 The question of whether or not to persuade comes before the science of persuasion
20. Action / B. Preliminaries of Action / 1. Intention to Act / b. Types of intention
135 All activity aims at the good
20. Action / C. Motives for Action / 2. Acting on Beliefs / a. Acting on beliefs
16 We avoid evil either through a natural aversion, or because we have acquired knowledge
20. Action / C. Motives for Action / 3. Acting on Reason / b. Intellectualism
1655 If goodness needs true opinion but not knowledge, you can skip the 'examined life' [Vlastos]
203 Courage is knowing what should or shouldn't be feared
202 No one willingly and knowingly embraces evil
21. Aesthetics / A. Aesthetic Experience / 4. Beauty
299 What is fine is always difficult
173 Beauty and goodness are the same
4026 Beauty is harmony with what is divine, and ugliness is lack of such harmony
172 Love of ugliness is impossible
155 Beauty is the clearest and most lovely of the Forms
390 If goodness involves moderation and proportion, then it seems to be found in beauty
249 People who value beauty above virtue insult the soul by placing the body above it
21. Aesthetics / A. Aesthetic Experience / 5. Natural Beauty
184 Progress goes from physical beauty, to moral beauty, to the beauty of knowledge, and reaches absolute beauty
183 Stage two is the realisation that beauty of soul is of more value than beauty of body
282 Non-physical beauty can only be shown clearly by speech
21. Aesthetics / B. Nature of Art / 8. The Arts / a. Music
171 Music is a knowledge of love in the realm of harmony and rhythm
316 Music has harmony like the soul, and serves to reorder disharmony within us
21. Aesthetics / B. Nature of Art / 8. The Arts / b. Literature
16565 Without the surface decoration, poetry shows only appearances and nothing of what is real
21. Aesthetics / C. Artistic Issues / 3. Artistic Representation
2160 Representation is two steps removed from the truth
21. Aesthetics / C. Artistic Issues / 6. Value of Art
2163 Artists should be excluded from a law-abiding community, because they destroy the rational mind
2135 Truth is closely related to proportion
21. Aesthetics / C. Artistic Issues / 7. Art and Morality
297 What is fine is the parent of goodness
22. Metaethics / A. Value / 1. Nature of Value / b. Fact and value
4547 Plato measured the degree of reality by the degree of value [Nietzsche]
22. Metaethics / A. Value / 2. Values / c. Health
2129 Goodness is mental health, badness is mental sickness
22. Metaethics / A. Value / 2. Values / d. Altruism
1590 The just man does not harm his enemies, but benefits everyone
22. Metaethics / A. Value / 2. Values / e. Love
14177 Love assists men in achieving merit and happiness
179 Love is desire for perpetual possession of the good
176 Love follows beauty, wisdom is exceptionally beautiful, so love follows wisdom
22. Metaethics / A. Value / 2. Values / f. Fine deeds
139 A good person is bound to act well, and this brings happiness
22. Metaethics / A. Value / 2. Values / g. Self interest
128 Is it natural to simply indulge our selfish desires?
2168 Clever criminals do well at first, but not in the long run
12 If we were invisible, would the just man become like the unjust?
22. Metaethics / A. Value / 2. Values / h. Successful function
2094 A thing's function is what it alone can do, or what it does better than other things
2095 If something has a function then it has a state of being good
22. Metaethics / B. The Good / 1. Goodness / a. Form of the Good
295 The good is beautiful
4007 For Plato we abandon honour and pleasure once we see the Good [Taylor,C]
2147 The sight of goodness leads to all that is fine and true and right
2164 Bad is always destructive, where good preserves and benefits
2143 Good has the same role in the world of knowledge as the sun has in the physical world
2137 The main aim is to understand goodness, which gives everything its value and advantage
2139 Every person, and every activity, aims at the good
2144 Goodness makes truth and knowledge possible
391 The good involves beauty, proportion and truth
392 Neither intellect nor pleasure are the good, because they are not perfect and self-sufficient
22. Metaethics / B. The Good / 1. Goodness / b. Types of good
9274 Plato's legacy to European thought was the Good, the Beautiful and the True [Gray]
393 Good first, then beauty, then reason, then knowledge, then pleasure [PG]
22. Metaethics / B. The Good / 1. Goodness / d. Good as virtue
177 If a person is good they will automatically become happy
22. Metaethics / B. The Good / 1. Goodness / e. Good as knowledge
301 Only knowledge of some sort is good
2138 Pleasure is commonly thought to be the good, though the more ingenious prefer knowledge
22. Metaethics / B. The Good / 1. Goodness / f. Good as pleasure
4322 In slaking our thirst the goodness of the action and the pleasure are clearly separate
136 Good should be the aim of pleasant activity, not the other way round
94 Pleasure is better with the addition of intelligence, so pleasure is not the good [Aristotle]
2070 Even people who think pleasure is the good admit that there are bad pleasures
22. Metaethics / B. The Good / 1. Goodness / g. Consequentialism
265 An action is only just if it is performed by someone with a just character and outlook
22. Metaethics / B. The Good / 1. Goodness / h. Good as benefit
193 Some things are good even though they are not beneficial to men
22. Metaethics / B. The Good / 1. Goodness / i. Moral luck
269 Attempted murder is like real murder, but we should respect the luck which avoided total ruin
22. Metaethics / B. The Good / 2. Happiness / b. Eudaimonia
14178 Happiness is secure enjoyment of what is good and beautiful
22. Metaethics / B. The Good / 2. Happiness / d. Routes to happiness
17947 Plato decided that the virtuous and happy life was the philosophical life [Nehamas]
332 One should exercise both the mind and the body, to avoid imbalance
22. Metaethics / B. The Good / 3. Pleasure / a. Nature of pleasure
385 Some of the pleasures and pains we feel are false
22. Metaethics / B. The Good / 3. Pleasure / b. Types of pleasure
2157 Nice smells are intensive, have no preceding pain, and no bad after-effect
387 A small pure pleasure is much finer than a large one contaminated with pain
22. Metaethics / B. The Good / 3. Pleasure / c. Value of pleasure
197 Some pleasures are not good, and some pains are not evil
200 People tend only to disapprove of pleasure if it leads to pain, or prevents future pleasure
2134 Philosophers are concerned with totally non-physical pleasures
157 Most pleasure is release from pain, and is therefore not worthwhile
373 Pleasure is certainly very pleasant, but it doesn't follow that all pleasures are good
379 The good must be sufficient and perfect, and neither intellect nor pleasure are that
371 Reason, memory, truth and wisdom are far better than pleasure, for those who can attain them
376 Would you prefer a life of pleasure without reason, or one of reason without pleasure?
382 It is unlikely that the gods feel either pleasure or pain
240 It would be strange if the gods rewarded those who experienced the most pleasure in life
22. Metaethics / B. The Good / 3. Pleasure / d. Sources of pleasure
2156 There are three types of pleasure, for reason, for spirit and for appetite
381 We feel pleasure when we approach our natural state of harmony
22. Metaethics / B. The Good / 3. Pleasure / e. Role of pleasure
134 Good and bad people seem to experience equal amounts of pleasure and pain
361 It is a mistake to think that the most violent pleasure or pain is therefore the truest reality
386 Intense pleasure and pain are not felt in a good body, but in a worthless one
328 Everything that takes place naturally is pleasant
22. Metaethics / B. The Good / 3. Pleasure / f. Dangers of pleasure
4319 In a fool's mind desire is like a leaky jar, insatiable in its desires, and order and contentment are better
132 If happiness is the satisfaction of desires, then a life of scratching itches should be happiness
2158 Pleasure-seekers desperately seek illusory satisfaction, like filling a leaky vessel
2123 Excessive pleasure deranges people, making the other virtues impossible
264 The conquest of pleasure is the noblest victory of all
22. Metaethics / C. Ethics Foundations / 1. Nature of Ethics / a. Preconditions for ethics
168 To understand morality requires a soul
22. Metaethics / C. Ethics Foundations / 1. Nature of Ethics / b. Defining ethics
2141 I suggest that we forget about trying to define goodness itself for the time being
22. Metaethics / C. Ethics Foundations / 1. Nature of Ethics / d. Ethical theory
302 What knowledge is required to live well?
22. Metaethics / C. Ethics Foundations / 2. Source of Ethics / a. Idealistic ethics
1869 The good cannot be expressed in words, but imprints itself upon the soul [Celsus]
22. Metaethics / C. Ethics Foundations / 2. Source of Ethics / c. Ethical intuitionism
7503 Plato never refers to examining the conscience [Foucault]
22. Metaethics / C. Ethics Foundations / 2. Source of Ethics / e. Human nature
143 The two ruling human principles are the natural desire for pleasure, and an acquired love of virtue
22. Metaethics / C. Ethics Foundations / 2. Source of Ethics / f. Übermensch
4115 Plato found that he could only enforce rational moral justification by creating an authoritarian society [Williams,B]
22. Metaethics / C. Ethics Foundations / 2. Source of Ethics / g. Will to power
122 Moral rules are made by the weak members of humanity
22. Metaethics / C. Ethics Foundations / 2. Source of Ethics / j. Ethics by convention
2173 As religion and convention collapsed, Plato sought morals not just in knowledge, but in the soul [Williams,B]
23. Ethics / A. Egoism / 1. Ethical Egoism
2166 We should behave well even if invisible, for the health of the mind
1636 Wickedness is an illness of the soul
23. Ethics / A. Egoism / 2. Hedonism
130 Is the happiest state one of sensual, self-indulgent freedom?
388 Hedonists must say that someone in pain is bad, even if they are virtuous
377 If you lived a life of maximum pleasure, would you still be lacking anything?
378 A life of pure pleasure with no intellect is the life of a jellyfish
23. Ethics / B. Contract Ethics / 1. Contractarianism
19946 Morality is a compromise, showing restraint, to avoid suffering wrong without compensation
2097 Isn't it better to have a reputation for goodness than to actually be good?
5 Justice is merely the interests of the stronger party
23. Ethics / B. Contract Ethics / 3. Promise Keeping
7 Surely you don't return a borrowed weapon to a mad friend?
23. Ethics / B. Contract Ethics / 4. Value of Authority
8 Is right just the interests of the powerful?
23. Ethics / B. Contract Ethics / 5. Free Rider
15 Sin first, then sacrifice to the gods from the proceeds
23. Ethics / C. Virtue Theory / 1. Virtue Theory / a. Nature of virtue
13785 'Arete' signifies lack of complexity and a free-flowing soul
6015 Plato, unusually, said that theoretical and practical wisdom are inseparable [Kraut]
23. Ethics / C. Virtue Theory / 2. Elements of Virtue Theory / c. Motivation for virtue
120 Should we avoid evil because it will bring us bad consequences?
182 The first step on the right path is the contemplation of physical beauty when young
170 The only slavery which is not dishonourable is slavery to excellence
5944 For Plato, virtue is its own reward [Lawson-Tancred]
144 Reason impels us towards excellence, which teaches us self-control
248 A serious desire for moral excellence is very rare indeed
253 Every crime is the result of excessive self-love
263 The only worthwhile life is one devoted to physical and moral perfection
4332 Virtue is a concord of reason and emotion, with pleasure and pain trained to correct ends
23. Ethics / C. Virtue Theory / 2. Elements of Virtue Theory / d. Teaching virtue
1913 Is virtue taught, or achieved by practice, or a natural aptitude, or what?
1921 If virtue is a type of knowledge then it ought to be taught
1927 It seems that virtue is neither natural nor taught, but is a divine gift
189 If we punish wrong-doers, it shows that we believe virtue can be taught
204 Socrates is contradicting himself in claiming virtue can't be taught, but that it is knowledge
188 Socrates did not believe that virtue could be taught
235 Virtue is the aim of all laws
23. Ethics / C. Virtue Theory / 2. Elements of Virtue Theory / e. Character
118 I would rather be a victim of crime than a criminal
23. Ethics / C. Virtue Theory / 2. Elements of Virtue Theory / f. The Mean
305 Something which lies midway between two evils is better than either of them
281 The arts produce good and beautiful things by preserving the mean
23. Ethics / C. Virtue Theory / 2. Elements of Virtue Theory / j. Unity of virtue
1916 Even if virtues are many and various, they must have something in common to make them virtues
1918 How can you know part of virtue without knowing the whole?
2155 True goodness requires mental unity and harmony
277 The Guardians must aim to discover the common element in the four cardinal virtues
23. Ethics / C. Virtue Theory / 3. Virtues / a. Virtues
2126 A good community necessarily has wisdom, courage, self-discipline and morality
23. Ethics / C. Virtue Theory / 3. Virtues / b. Temperance
131 If absence of desire is happiness, then nothing is happier than a stone or a corpse
140 Self-indulgent desire makes friendship impossible, because it makes a person incapable of co-operation
254 Excessive laughter and tears must be avoided
23. Ethics / C. Virtue Theory / 3. Virtues / c. Justice
129 Do most people praise self-discipline and justice because they are too timid to gain their own pleasure?
119 A criminal is worse off if he avoids punishment
2092 Simonides said morality is helping one's friends and harming one's enemies
266 Injustice is the mastery of the soul by bad feelings, even if they do not lead to harm
23. Ethics / C. Virtue Theory / 3. Virtues / d. Courage
293 Being unafraid (perhaps through ignorance) and being brave are two different things
23. Ethics / C. Virtue Theory / 4. External Goods / b. Health
4320 The popular view is that health is first, good looks second, and honest wealth third
23. Ethics / C. Virtue Theory / 4. External Goods / c. Wealth
351 War aims at the acquisition of wealth, because we are enslaved to the body
242 The best people are produced where there is no excess of wealth or poverty
256 Virtue and great wealth are incompatible
23. Ethics / C. Virtue Theory / 4. External Goods / d. Friendship
294 People say that friendship exists only between good men
156 Bad people are never really friends with one another
23. Ethics / F. Existentialism / 4. Boredom
2912 Plato is boring [Nietzsche]
24. Applied Ethics / B. Moral Rights / 2. Sexual Morality
298 While sex is very pleasant, it should be in secret, as it looks contemptible
25. Society / A. State of Nature / 1. A People / b. The natural life
19889 People need society because the individual has too many needs
25. Society / B. The State / 1. Purpose of a State
137 As with other things, a good state is organised and orderly
19890 All exchanges in a community are for mutual benefit
25. Society / B. The State / 2. State Legitimacy / d. Social contract
10 After a taste of mutual harm, men make a legal contract to avoid it
25. Society / B. The State / 5. Leaders / c. Despotism
245 Totalitarian states destroy friendships and community spirit
25. Society / B. The State / 5. Leaders / d. Elites
2132 Only rule by philosophers of integrity can keep a community healthy
2149 Reluctant rulers make a better and more unified administration
25. Society / C. Social Justice / 1. Social Justice
259 Justice is granting the equality which unequals deserve
25. Society / C. Social Justice / 4. Social Equality / a. Grounds of equality
123 Do most people like equality because they are second-rate?
1402 Friendship is impossible between master and slave, even if they are made equal
262 Men and women should qualify equally for honours on merit
25. Society / C. Social Justice / 4. Social Equality / d. Economic equality
124 Does nature imply that it is right for better people to have greater benefits?
25. Society / C. Social Justice / 5. Legal Rights / a. Basis of rights
236 Sound laws achieve the happiness of those who observe them
25. Society / D. Political Doctrines / 5. Democracy / a. Nature of democracy
22559 Democracy is the worst of good constitutions, but the best of bad constitutions [Aristotle]
25. Society / D. Political Doctrines / 5. Democracy / c. Direct democracy
141 A good citizen won't be passive, but will redirect the needs of the state
25. Society / D. Political Doctrines / 7. Communitarianism
2131 Is there anything better for a community than to produce excellent people?
239 Education in virtue produces citizens who are active but obedient
25. Society / E. State Functions / 4. Education / a. Education principles
2148 To gain knowledge, turn away from the world of change, and focus on true goodness
2152 Dialectic is the highest and most important part of the curriculum
331 Bad governments prevent discussion, and discourage the study of virtue
238 Children's games should channel their pleasures into adult activity
260 Control of education is the key office of state, and should go to the best citizen
257 Mathematics has the widest application of any subject on the curriculum
25. Society / E. State Functions / 4. Education / b. Aims of education
322 Intelligence is the result of rational teaching; true opinion can result from irrational persuasion
25. Society / E. State Functions / 4. Education / c. Teaching
2153 Compulsory intellectual work never remains in the mind
222 Only a great person can understand the essence of things, and an even greater person can teach it
1638 Didactic education is hard work and achieves little
250 The best way to educate the young is not to rebuke them, but to set a good example
4331 Education is channelling a child's feelings into the right course before it understands why
26. Natural Theory / A. Speculations on Nature / 1. Nature
310 The creator of the cosmos had no envy, and so wanted things to be as like himself as possible
311 The cosmos must be unique, because it resembles the creator, who is unique
26. Natural Theory / A. Speculations on Nature / 2. Natural Purpose / a. Final purpose
275 Creation is not for you; you exist for the sake of creation
26. Natural Theory / A. Speculations on Nature / 6. Early Matter Theories / d. The unlimited
225 The unlimited has no shape and is endless
26. Natural Theory / A. Speculations on Nature / 6. Early Matter Theories / e. The One
2062 The only movement possible for the One is in space or in alteration
231 Everything partakes of the One in some way
233 Some things do not partake of the One
26. Natural Theory / A. Speculations on Nature / 6. Early Matter Theories / g. Atomism
325 We must consider the four basic shapes as too small to see, only becoming visible in large numbers
26. Natural Theory / C. Causation / 1. Causation
327 There are two types of cause, the necessary and the divine
26. Natural Theory / C. Causation / 2. Types of cause
13156 Fancy being unable to distinguish a cause from its necessary background conditions!
27. Natural Reality / C. Space-Time / 2. Time / d. Beginning of time
312 Time came into existence with the heavens, so that there will be a time when they can be dissolved
27. Natural Reality / C. Space-Time / 2. Time / i. Time and change
314 Heavenly movements gave us the idea of time, and caused us to inquire about the heavens
27. Natural Reality / D. Cosmology / 1. Cosmology
369 If the Earth is spherical and in the centre, it is kept in place by universal symmetry, not by force
309 Clearly the world is good, so its maker must have been concerned with the eternal, not with change
27. Natural Reality / D. Cosmology / 3. The Beginning
148 If the prime origin is destroyed, it will not come into being again out of anything
308 If the cosmos is an object of perception then it must be continually changing
273 Movement is transmitted through everything, and it must have started with self-generated motion
27. Natural Reality / F. Biology / 5. Species
13779 The natural offspring of a lion is called a 'lion' (but what about the offspring of a king?)
28. God / A. Divine Nature / 2. Divine Nature
13783 Even the gods love play
279 Only divine things can always stay the same, and bodies are not like that
28. God / A. Divine Nature / 3. Divine Perfections
175 Gods are not lovers of wisdom, because they are already wise
152 The mind of God is fully satisfied and happy with a vision of reality and truth
28. God / A. Divine Nature / 4. Divine Contradictions
2630 If Plato's God is immaterial, he will lack consciousness, wisdom, pleasure and movement, which are essential to him [Cicero]
28. God / A. Divine Nature / 6. Divine Morality / b. Euthyphro question
337 It seems that the gods love things because they are pious, rather than making them pious by loving them
336 Is what is pious loved by the gods because it is pious, or is it pious because they love it? (the 'Euthyphro Question')
28. God / A. Divine Nature / 6. Divine Morality / c. God is the good
2058 God must be the epitome of goodness, and we can only approach a divine state by being as good as possible
28. God / A. Divine Nature / 6. Divine Morality / d. God decrees morality
8004 In 'The Laws', to obey the law is to be obey god [MacIntyre]
28. God / B. Proving God / 2. Proofs of Reason / a. Ontological Proof
234 We couldn't discuss the non-existence of the One without knowledge of it
28. God / B. Proving God / 3. Proofs of Evidence / a. Cosmological Proof
21257 Self-generating motion is clearly superior to all other kinds of motion
21258 The only possible beginning for the endless motions of reality is something self-generated
21261 Self-moving soul has to be the oldest thing there is
28. God / B. Proving God / 3. Proofs of Evidence / b. Teleological Proof
274 Soul must be the cause of all the opposites, such as good and evil or beauty and ugliness
21263 If all the motions of nature reflect calculations of reason, then the best kind of soul must direct it
28. God / C. Attitudes to God / 3. Deism
14 If the gods are non-existent or indifferent, why bother to deceive them?
28. God / C. Attitudes to God / 4. God Reflects Humanity
150 We cannot conceive of God, so we have to think of Him as an immortal version of ourselves
28. God / C. Attitudes to God / 5. Atheism
149 There isn't a single reason for positing the existence of immortal beings
278 If astronomical movements are seen as necessary instead of by divine will, this leads to atheism
29. Religion / A. Polytheistic Religion / 1. Animism
21265 The heavens must be full of gods, controlling nature either externally or from within
29. Religion / A. Polytheistic Religion / 4. Dualist Religion
21262 There must be at least two souls controlling the cosmos, one doing good, the other the opposite
29. Religion / D. Religious Issues / 2. Immortality / a. Immortality
363 Whether the soul pre-exists our body depends on whether it contains the ultimate standard of reality
146 Soul is always in motion, so it must be self-moving and immortal
29. Religion / D. Religious Issues / 2. Immortality / b. Soul
2165 Something is unlikely to be immortal if it is imperfectly made from diverse parts
29. Religion / D. Religious Issues / 2. Immortality / d. Heaven
13 Is the supreme reward for virtue to be drunk for eternity?
29. Religion / D. Religious Issues / 3. Problem of Evil / a. Problem of Evil
2057 There must always be some force of evil ranged against good
29. Religion / D. Religious Issues / 3. Problem of Evil / d. Natural Evil
2120 God is responsible for the good things, but we must look elsewhere for the cause of the bad things