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All the ideas for 'Lectures on the History of Philosophy', 'Introduction of 'Essence of Christianity'' and 'Principles of Philosophy'

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32 ideas

1. Philosophy / D. Nature of Philosophy / 2. Invocation to Philosophy
3656 The greatest good for a state is true philosophers [Descartes]
     Full Idea: The greatest good which can exist in a state is to have true philosophers.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], Pref)
     A reaction: …because they understand true reality, especially the Good.
1. Philosophy / D. Nature of Philosophy / 3. Philosophy Defined
21757 Philosophy is the conceptual essence of the shape of history [Hegel]
     Full Idea: Philosophy is the supreme blossom - the concept - of the entire shape of history, the consciousness and the spiritual essence of the whole situation, the spirit of the age as the spirit present and aware of itself in thought.
     From: Georg W.F.Hegel (Lectures on the History of Philosophy [1830], p.25), quoted by Stephen Houlgate - An Introduction to Hegel 01
     A reaction: This sees philosophy as intrinsically historical, which is a founding idea for 'continental' philosophy. Analysis is tied to science, in which the history of the subject is seen as irrelevant to its truth. Does this mean we can't go back to Aristotle?
8. Modes of Existence / C. Powers and Dispositions / 3. Powers as Derived
16744 All powers can be explained by obvious features like size, shape and motion of matter [Descartes]
     Full Idea: There are no powers in stones and plants that are not so mysterious that they cannot be explained …from principles that are known to all and admitted by all, namely the shape, size, position, and motion of particles of matter.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], IV.187), quoted by Robert Pasnau - Metaphysical Themes 1274-1671 23.6
     A reaction: This is an invocation of 'categorical' properties, against dispositions. I take this to be quite wrong. The explanation goes the other way. What supports the structures; what drives the motion; what initiates anything?
8. Modes of Existence / D. Universals / 1. Universals
5016 Five universals: genus, species, difference, property, accident [Descartes]
     Full Idea: The five commonly enumerated universals are: genus, species, difference, property and accident.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], I.59)
     A reaction: Interestingly, this seems to be Descartes passing on his medieval Aristotelian inheritance, in which things are defined by placing them in a class, and then noting what distinguishes them within that class.
8. Modes of Existence / E. Nominalism / 2. Resemblance Nominalism
5015 A universal is a single idea applied to individual things that are similar to one another [Descartes]
     Full Idea: Universals arise solely from the fact that we avail ourselves of one idea in order to think of all individual things that have a certain similitude. When we understand under the same name all the objects represented by this idea, that name is universal.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], I.59)
     A reaction: Judging by the boldness of the pronouncement, it looks as if Descartes hasn't recognised the complexity of the problem. How do we spot a 'similarity', especially an abstraction like 'tool' or 'useful'? This sounds like Descartes trying to avoid Platonism.
9. Objects / B. Unity of Objects / 2. Substance / a. Substance
16630 If we perceive an attribute, we infer the existence of some substance [Descartes]
     Full Idea: Based on perceiving the presence of some attribute, we conclude there must also be present an existing thing or substance to which it can be attributed.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], I.52), quoted by Robert Pasnau - Metaphysical Themes 1274-1671 08.1
     A reaction: A rainbow might be a tricky case. This illustrates the persistent belief in substances, even among philosophers who embraced the new corpuscular and mechanistic view of matter.
9. Objects / B. Unity of Objects / 2. Substance / d. Substance defined
5013 A substance needs nothing else in order to exist [Descartes]
     Full Idea: By substance we can understand nothing else than a thing which so exists that it needs no other thing in order to exist.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], I.51)
     A reaction: Properties, of course, are the things which have dependent existence. Can properties be reduced to substances (e.g. by adopting a materialist theory of mind)? Note that Descartes does not think that substances depend on God for existence.
9. Objects / D. Essence of Objects / 9. Essence and Properties
16633 A substance has one principal property which is its nature and essence [Descartes]
     Full Idea: Each substance has one principal property that constitutes its nature and essence, to which all its other properties are referred. Extension in length, breadth, and depth constitutes the nature of corporeal substance; and thought of thinking substances.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], I.53), quoted by Robert Pasnau - Metaphysical Themes 1274-1671 08.3
     A reaction: Property is likely to be 'propria', which is a property distinctive of some thing, not just any old modern property. This is quite a strikingly original view of the nature of essence. Descartes despised 'substantial forms'.
11. Knowledge Aims / B. Certain Knowledge / 4. The Cogito
3658 Total doubt can't include your existence while doubting [Descartes]
     Full Idea: He who decides to doubt everything cannot nevertheless doubt that he exists while he doubts.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], Pref)
5005 I think, therefore I am, because for a thinking thing to not exist is a contradiction [Descartes]
     Full Idea: There is a contradiction in conceiving that what thinks does not (at the same time as it thinks) exist. Hence this conclusion I think, therefore I am, is the first and most certain that occurs to one who philosophises in an orderly way.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], I.07)
     A reaction: The classic statement of his argument. The significance here is that it seems to have the structure of an argument, as it involves 'philosophising', which leads to a 'contradiction', and hence to the famous conclusion. It is not just intuitive.
5006 'Thought' is all our conscious awareness, including feeling as well as understanding [Descartes]
     Full Idea: By the word 'thought' I understand everything we are conscious of as operating in us. And that is why not only understanding, willing, imagining, but also feeling, are here the same thing as thinking.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], I.09)
     A reaction: There is a bit of tension here between Descartes' correct need to include feeling in thought for his Cogito argument, and his tendency to dismiss animal consciousness, on the grounds that they only sense things, and don't make judgements.
12. Knowledge Sources / A. A Priori Knowledge / 4. A Priori as Necessities
5012 'Nothing comes from nothing' is an eternal truth found within the mind [Descartes]
     Full Idea: The proposition 'nothing comes from nothing' is not to be considered as an existing thing, or the mode of a thing, but as a certain eternal truth which has its seat in our mind and is a common notion or axiom.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], I.49)
     A reaction: There is a tension here, in his assertion that it is 'eternal', but 'not existing'. How does one distinguish an innate idea from an innate truth? 'Eternal' sounds like an external guarantee of truth, but being 'in our mind' sounds less reliable.
13. Knowledge Criteria / B. Internal Justification / 4. Foundationalism / b. Basic beliefs
5004 We can know basic Principles without further knowledge, but not the other way round [Descartes]
     Full Idea: It is on the Principles, or first causes, that the knowledge of other things depends, so the Principles can be known without these last, but the other things cannot reciprocally be known without the Principles.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], Pref)
     A reaction: A particularly strong assertion of foundationalism, as it says that not only must the foundations exist, but also we must actually know them. This sounds false, as elementary knowledge then seems to require far too much sophistication.
15. Nature of Minds / B. Features of Minds / 1. Consciousness / b. Essence of consciousness
5014 We can understand thinking occuring without imagination or sensation [Descartes]
     Full Idea: We can understand thinking without imagination or sensation, as is quite clear to anyone who attends to the matter.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], I.53)
     A reaction: We may certainly take it that Descartes means if it is understandable then it is logically possible. To believe that thinking could occur without imagination strikes me as an astonishing error. I take imagination to be more central than understanding.
16. Persons / D. Continuity of the Self / 7. Self and Thinking
5017 In thinking we shut ourselves off from other substances, showing our identity and separateness [Descartes]
     Full Idea: Because each one of us understands what he thinks, and that in thinking he can shut himself off from every other substance, we may conclude that each of us is really distinct from every other thinking substance and from corporeal substance.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], I.60)
     A reaction: This seems to be a novel argument which requires elucidation. I can 'shut myself off from every other substance'? If I shut myself off from thinking about food, does that mean hunger is not part of me? Or convince yourself that you don't have a brother?
16. Persons / F. Free Will / 1. Nature of Free Will
5010 Our free will is so self-evident to us that it must be a basic innate idea [Descartes]
     Full Idea: It is so evident that we are possessed of a free will that can give or withhold its assent, that this may be counted as one of the first and most common notions found innately in us.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], I.39)
     A reaction: It seems to me plausible to say that we have an innate conception of our own will (our ability to make decisions), though Hume says we only learn about the will from experience, but the idea that it is absolutely 'free' might never cross our minds.
17. Mind and Body / A. Mind-Body Dualism / 1. Dualism
5011 There are two ultimate classes of existence: thinking substance and extended substance [Descartes]
     Full Idea: I observe two ultimate classes of things: intellectual or thinking things, pertaining to the mind or to thinking substance, and material things, pertaining to extended substance or to body.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], I.48)
     A reaction: This is clear confirmation that Descartes believed the mind is a substance, rather than an insubstantial world of thinking. It leaves open the possibility of a different theory: that mind is not a substance, but is a Platonic adjunct to reality.
17. Mind and Body / D. Property Dualism / 5. Supervenience of mind
5018 Even if tightly united, mind and body are different, as God could separate them [Descartes]
     Full Idea: Even if we suppose God had united a body and a soul so closely that they couldn't be closer, and made a single thing out of the two, they would still remain distinct, because God has the power of separating them, or conserving out without the other.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], I.60)
     A reaction: If Descartes lost his belief in God (after discussing existence with Kant) would he cease to be a dualist? This quotation seems to be close to conceding a mind-body relationship more like supervenience than interaction.
18. Thought / A. Modes of Thought / 5. Rationality / a. Rationality
19451 When absorbed in deep reflection, is your reason in control, or is it you? [Feuerbach]
     Full Idea: When, submerged in deep reflection, you forget both yourself and your surroundings, is it you who controls reason, or is it rather reason that controls and absorbs you?
     From: Ludwig Feuerbach (Introduction of 'Essence of Christianity' [1841], I)
     A reaction: A delightful question, even if it looks like a false dichotomy. I'm not sure what to make of 'me', if my reason can be subtracted from it. Aquinas was one the same wavelength here.
18. Thought / A. Modes of Thought / 6. Judgement / b. Error
5007 Most errors of judgement result from an inaccurate perception of the facts [Descartes]
     Full Idea: What usually misleads us is that we very frequently form a judgement although we do not have an accurate perception of what we judge.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], I.33)
     A reaction: This seems to me a generally accurate observation, particularly in the making of moral judgements (which was probably not what Descartes was considering). The implication is that judgements are to a large extent forced by our perceptions.
20. Action / C. Motives for Action / 4. Responsibility for Actions
5009 We do not praise the acts of an efficient automaton, as their acts are necessary [Descartes]
     Full Idea: We do not praise automata, although they respond exactly to the movements they were designed to produce, since their actions are performed necessarily
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], I.37)
     A reaction: I say we attribute responsibility when we perceive something like a 'person' as causing them. We don't blame small animals, because there is 'no one at home', but we blame children as they develop a full character and identity. We can ignore free will.
5008 The greatest perfection of man is to act by free will, and thus merit praise or blame [Descartes]
     Full Idea: That the will should extend widely accords with its nature, and it is the greatest perfection in man to be able to act by its means, that is, freely, and by so doing we are in peculiar way masters of our actions, and thereby merit praise or blame.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], I.37)
     A reaction: This seems to me to be a deep-rooted and false understanding which philosophy has inherited from theology. It doesn't strike me that there must an absolute 'buck-stop' to make us responsible. Why is it better for a decision to appear out of nowhere?
22. Metaethics / C. The Good / 1. Goodness / b. Types of good
19450 Reason, love and will are the highest perfections and essence of man - the purpose of his life [Feuerbach]
     Full Idea: Reason, love and power of will are perfections of man; they are his highest powers, his absolute essence in so far as he is man, the purpose of his existence. Man exists in order to think, love and will.
     From: Ludwig Feuerbach (Introduction of 'Essence of Christianity' [1841], I)
     A reaction: Feuerbach was a notable atheist, but adopts a religious style of language which modern atheists would find rather alien. Personally I love talk of ideals and perfections. Ideals have been discredited in modern times, but need a revival.
26. Natural Theory / A. Speculations on Nature / 1. Nature
15987 Physics only needs geometry or abstract mathematics, which can explain and demonstrate everything [Descartes]
     Full Idea: I do not accept or desire any other principle in physics than in geometry or abstract mathematics, because all the phenomena of nature may be explained by their means, and sure demonstrations can be given of them.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], 2.64), quoted by Peter Alexander - Ideas, Qualities and Corpuscles 7
     A reaction: This is his famous and rather extreme view, which might be described as hyper-pythagoreanism (by adding geometry to numbers). It seems to leave out matter, forces and activity.
26. Natural Theory / A. Speculations on Nature / 2. Natural Purpose / c. Purpose denied
12730 We will not try to understand natural or divine ends, or final causes [Descartes]
     Full Idea: We will not seek for the reason of natural things from the end which God or nature has set before him in their creation .
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], §28)
     A reaction: Teleology is more relevant to biology than to the other sciences, and it is hard to understand an eye without a notion of 'what it is for'. Planetary motion reveals nothing about purposes. If you demand a purpose, it becomes more baffling.
26. Natural Theory / A. Speculations on Nature / 7. Later Matter Theories / c. Matter as extension
16601 Matter is not hard, heavy or coloured, but merely extended in space [Descartes]
     Full Idea: The nature of matter, or body viewed as a whole, consists not in its being something which is hard, heavy, or colored, or which in any other way affects the senses, but only in its being a thing extended in length, breadth and depth.
     From: René Descartes (Principles of Philosophy [1646], 2.4), quoted by Robert Pasnau - Metaphysical Themes 1274-1671 04.5
27. Natural Reality / G. Biology / 5. Species
19448 Consciousness is said to distinguish man from animals - consciousness of his own species [Feuerbach]
     Full Idea: What constitutes the essential difference between man and animal? The most simple, general, and most widely held answer to this question is consciousness. Consciousness is given only in the case of a being to whom his species ...is an object of thought.
     From: Ludwig Feuerbach (Introduction of 'Essence of Christianity' [1841], I)
     A reaction: Rather speculative. Since other species cohabit and breed only with their fellow species members, one might have thought they were aware of them.
28. God / A. Divine Nature / 6. Divine Morality / b. Euthyphro question
19454 A God needs justice, kindness and wisdom, but those concepts don't depend on the concept of God [Feuerbach]
     Full Idea: The concept of God depends on the concepts of justice, kindness and wisdom - a God who is not kind, not just, and not wise is no God. But these concepts do not depend on the concept of God. That a quality is possessed by God does not make it divine.
     From: Ludwig Feuerbach (Introduction of 'Essence of Christianity' [1841], II)
     A reaction: This is part of Feuerbach's argument for atheism, but if you ask for the source of our human concepts of justice, kindness and wisdom, no one, I would have thought, could cite God for the role.
28. God / C. Attitudes to God / 4. God Reflects Humanity
19452 The nature of God is an expression of human nature [Feuerbach]
     Full Idea: God is the manifestation of man's inner nature, his expressed self.
     From: Ludwig Feuerbach (Introduction of 'Essence of Christianity' [1841], II)
     A reaction: Even if you are a deeply committed theist, you have to concede some of this point. The perfections attributed to God are usually of human qualities. Leibniz, though, says that God has an infinity of perfection, mostly unknown to us.
28. God / C. Attitudes to God / 5. Atheism
19453 If love, goodness and personality are human, the God who is their source is anthropomorphic [Feuerbach]
     Full Idea: If love, goodness, and personality are human determinations, the being which constitutes their source and ...their presupposition is also an anthropomorphism; so is the existence of God.
     From: Ludwig Feuerbach (Introduction of 'Essence of Christianity' [1841], II)
     A reaction: It is certainly a struggle for the imagination to grasp a being which is characterised by idealised versions of human virtues, and yet has an intrinsic nature which is utterly different from humanity.
29. Religion / D. Religious Issues / 1. Religious Commitment / a. Religious Belief
19449 Religion is the consciousness of the infinite [Feuerbach]
     Full Idea: Religion is the consciousness of the infinite.
     From: Ludwig Feuerbach (Introduction of 'Essence of Christianity' [1841], I)
19455 Today's atheism will tomorrow become a religion [Feuerbach]
     Full Idea: What is regarded as atheism today will be religion tomorrow.
     From: Ludwig Feuerbach (Introduction of 'Essence of Christianity' [1841], II)
     A reaction: Modern critics of atheism frequently accuse it of being a new religion. I doubt whether Feuerbach is right, but it is a nice provocative idea.