Combining Texts

All the ideas for 'The Origin of the Work of Art', 'The Spirit of the Laws (rev. 1757)' and 'Problems of Philosophy'

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144 ideas

1. Philosophy / D. Nature of Philosophy / 1. Philosophy
Philosophers must get used to absurdities [Russell]
1. Philosophy / D. Nature of Philosophy / 3. Philosophy Defined
Philosophy verifies that our hierarchy of instinctive beliefs is harmonious and consistent [Russell]
1. Philosophy / D. Nature of Philosophy / 5. Aims of Philosophy / b. Philosophy as transcendent
Later Heidegger sees philosophy as more like poetry than like science [Heidegger, by Polt]
1. Philosophy / E. Nature of Metaphysics / 2. Possibility of Metaphysics
Metaphysics cannot give knowledge of the universe as a whole [Russell]
1. Philosophy / G. Scientific Philosophy / 3. Scientism
Philosophy is similar to science, and has no special source of wisdom [Russell]
2. Reason / B. Laws of Thought / 1. Laws of Thought
Three Laws of Thought: identity, contradiction, and excluded middle [Russell]
The law of contradiction is not a 'law of thought', but a belief about things [Russell]
3. Truth / A. Truth Problems / 1. Truth
Truth is a property of a belief, but dependent on its external relations, not its internal qualities [Russell]
3. Truth / A. Truth Problems / 5. Truth Bearers
Truth and falsehood are properties of beliefs and statements [Russell]
3. Truth / A. Truth Problems / 7. Falsehood
A good theory of truth must make falsehood possible [Russell]
3. Truth / C. Correspondence Truth / 1. Correspondence Truth
Truth as congruence may work for complex beliefs, but not for simple beliefs about existence [Joslin on Russell]
Beliefs are true if they have corresponding facts, and false if they don't [Russell]
3. Truth / D. Coherence Truth / 1. Coherence Truth
The coherence theory says falsehood is failure to cohere, and truth is fitting into a complete system of Truth [Russell]
3. Truth / D. Coherence Truth / 2. Coherence Truth Critique
More than one coherent body of beliefs seems possible [Russell]
If we suspend the law of contradiction, nothing will appear to be incoherent [Russell]
Coherence is not the meaning of truth, but an important test for truth [Russell]
4. Formal Logic / A. Syllogistic Logic / 2. Syllogistic Logic
The mortality of Socrates is more certain from induction than it is from deduction [Russell]
5. Theory of Logic / B. Logical Consequence / 5. Modus Ponens
Demonstration always relies on the rule that anything implied by a truth is true [Russell]
5. Theory of Logic / F. Referring in Logic / 1. Naming / b. Names as descriptive
Proper names are really descriptions, and can be replaced by a description in a person's mind [Russell]
5. Theory of Logic / F. Referring in Logic / 2. Descriptions / b. Definite descriptions
The phrase 'a so-and-so' is an 'ambiguous' description'; 'the so-and-so' (singular) is a 'definite' description [Russell]
6. Mathematics / C. Sources of Mathematics / 4. Mathematical Empiricism / c. Against mathematical empiricism
Maths is not known by induction, because further instances are not needed to support it [Russell]
7. Existence / D. Theories of Reality / 3. Reality
Space is neutral between touch and sight, so it cannot really be either of them [Russell]
7. Existence / D. Theories of Reality / 8. Facts / c. Facts and truths
In a world of mere matter there might be 'facts', but no truths [Russell]
8. Modes of Existence / A. Relations / 1. Nature of Relations
Because we depend on correspondence, we know relations better than we know the items that relate [Russell]
That Edinburgh is north of London is a non-mental fact, so relations are independent universals [Russell]
8. Modes of Existence / D. Universals / 1. Universals
Every complete sentence must contain at least one word (a verb) which stands for a universal [Russell]
Propositions express relations (prepositions and verbs) as well as properties (nouns and adjectives) [Russell]
Confused views of reality result from thinking that only nouns and adjectives represent universals [Russell]
All universals are like the relation "is north of", in having no physical location at all [Russell, by Loux]
8. Modes of Existence / D. Universals / 2. Need for Universals
Every sentence contains at least one word denoting a universal, so we need universals to know truth [Russell]
Russell claims that universals are needed to explain a priori knowledge (as their relations) [Russell, by Mellor/Oliver]
8. Modes of Existence / D. Universals / 4. Uninstantiated Universals
Normal existence is in time, so we must say that universals 'subsist' [Russell]
8. Modes of Existence / D. Universals / 5. Universals as Concepts
If we identify whiteness with a thought, we can never think of it twice; whiteness is the object of a thought [Russell]
8. Modes of Existence / E. Nominalism / 2. Resemblance Nominalism
'Resemblance Nominalism' won't work, because the theory treats resemblance itself as a universal [Russell]
8. Modes of Existence / E. Nominalism / 4. Concept Nominalism
If we consider whiteness to be merely a mental 'idea', we rob it of its universality [Russell]
10. Modality / E. Possible worlds / 1. Possible Worlds / a. Possible worlds
In any possible world we feel that two and two would be four [Russell]
11. Knowledge Aims / A. Knowledge / 1. Knowledge
Knowledge cannot be precisely defined, as it merges into 'probable opinion' [Russell]
11. Knowledge Aims / A. Knowledge / 4. Belief / b. Elements of beliefs
Belief relates a mind to several things other than itself [Russell]
11. Knowledge Aims / A. Knowledge / 4. Belief / d. Cause of beliefs
We have an 'instinctive' belief in the external world, prior to all reflection [Russell]
11. Knowledge Aims / B. Certain Knowledge / 4. The Cogito
Descartes showed that subjective things are the most certain [Russell]
11. Knowledge Aims / C. Knowing Reality / 1. Perceptual Realism / b. Direct realism
'Acquaintance' is direct awareness, without inferences or judgements [Russell]
11. Knowledge Aims / C. Knowing Reality / 1. Perceptual Realism / c. Representative realism
Russell (1912) said phenomena only resemble reality in abstract structure [Russell, by Robinson,H]
There is no reason to think that objects have colours [Russell]
11. Knowledge Aims / C. Knowing Reality / 3. Idealism / a. Idealism
'Idealism' says that everything which exists is in some sense mental [Russell]
11. Knowledge Aims / C. Knowing Reality / 4. Solipsism
It is not illogical to think that only myself and my mental events exist [Russell]
12. Knowledge Sources / A. A Priori Knowledge / 2. Self-Evidence
Some propositions are self-evident, but their implications may also be self-evident [Russell]
Particular instances are more clearly self-evident than any general principles [Russell]
As shown by memory, self-evidence comes in degrees [Russell]
If self-evidence has degrees, we should accept the more self-evident as correct [Russell]
12. Knowledge Sources / A. A Priori Knowledge / 4. A Priori as Necessities
The rationalists were right, because we know logical principles without experience [Russell]
12. Knowledge Sources / A. A Priori Knowledge / 9. A Priori from Concepts
All a priori knowledge deals with the relations of universals [Russell]
We can know some general propositions by universals, when no instance can be given [Russell]
12. Knowledge Sources / B. Perception / 3. Representation
Russell's representationalism says primary qualities only show the structure of reality [Russell, by Robinson,H]
12. Knowledge Sources / B. Perception / 4. Sense Data / a. Sense-data theory
After 1912, Russell said sense-data are last in analysis, not first in experience [Russell, by Grayling]
'Sense-data' are what are immediately known in sensation, such as colours or roughnesses [Russell]
12. Knowledge Sources / D. Empiricism / 1. Empiricism
If Russell rejects innate ideas and direct a priori knowledge, he is left with a tabula rasa [Russell, by Thompson]
It is natural to begin from experience, and presumably that is the basis of knowledge [Russell]
We are acquainted with outer and inner sensation, memory, Self, and universals [Russell, by PG]
Knowledge by descriptions enables us to transcend private experience [Russell]
12. Knowledge Sources / D. Empiricism / 5. Empiricism Critique
I can know the existence of something with which nobody is acquainted [Russell]
12. Knowledge Sources / E. Direct Knowledge / 4. Memory
Images are not memory, because they are present, and memories are of the past [Russell]
13. Knowledge Criteria / A. Justification Problems / 2. Justification Challenges / b. Gettier problem
A true belief is not knowledge if it is reached by bad reasoning [Russell]
True belief is not knowledge when it is deduced from false belief [Russell]
13. Knowledge Criteria / B. Internal Justification / 4. Foundationalism / c. Empirical foundations
All knowledge (of things and of truths) rests on the foundations of acquaintance [Russell]
13. Knowledge Criteria / D. Scepticism / 5. Dream Scepticism
Dreams can be explained fairly scientifically if we assume a physical world [Russell]
14. Science / B. Scientific Theories / 2. Aim of Science
Science aims to find uniformities to which (within the limits of experience) there are no exceptions [Russell]
14. Science / C. Induction / 3. Limits of Induction
We can't prove induction from experience without begging the question [Russell]
Chickens are not very good at induction, and are surprised when their feeder wrings their neck [Russell]
It doesn't follow that because the future has always resembled the past, that it always will [Russell]
14. Science / D. Explanation / 3. Best Explanation / a. Best explanation
If the cat reappears in a new position, presumably it has passed through the intermediate positions [Russell]
Belief in real objects makes our account of experience simpler and more systematic [Russell]
15. Nature of Minds / A. Nature of Mind / 4. Other Minds / c. Knowing other minds
It is hard not to believe that speaking humans are expressing thoughts, just as we do ourselves [Russell]
15. Nature of Minds / A. Nature of Mind / 4. Other Minds / d. Other minds by analogy
If we didn't know our own minds by introspection, we couldn't know that other people have minds [Russell]
15. Nature of Minds / C. Capacities of Minds / 7. Seeing Resemblance
I learn the universal 'resemblance' by seeing two shades of green, and their contrast with red [Russell]
16. Persons / B. Nature of the Self / 6. Self as Higher Awareness
In seeing the sun, we are acquainted with our self, but not as a permanent person [Russell]
16. Persons / C. Self-Awareness / 3. Limits of Introspection
In perceiving the sun, I am aware of sun sense-data, and of the perceiver of the data [Russell]
18. Thought / A. Modes of Thought / 5. Rationality / a. Rationality
It is rational to believe in reality, despite the lack of demonstrative reasons for it [Russell]
18. Thought / A. Modes of Thought / 6. Judgement / a. Nature of Judgement
Knowledge of truths applies to judgements; knowledge by acquaintance applies to sensations and things [Russell]
Russell's 'multiple relations' theory says beliefs attach to ingredients, not to propositions [Russell, by Linsky,B]
Truth is when a mental state corresponds to a complex unity of external constituents [Russell]
18. Thought / A. Modes of Thought / 6. Judgement / b. Error
In order to explain falsehood, a belief must involve several terms, not two [Russell]
18. Thought / D. Concepts / 1. Concepts / a. Nature of concepts
A universal of which we are aware is called a 'concept' [Russell]
19. Language / A. Nature of Meaning / 5. Meaning as Verification
Russell started philosophy of language, by declaring some plausible sentences to be meaningless [Russell, by Hart,WD]
Every understood proposition is composed of constituents with which we are acquainted [Russell]
19. Language / B. Reference / 4. Descriptive Reference / b. Reference by description
It is pure chance which descriptions in a person's mind make a name apply to an individual [Russell]
19. Language / D. Propositions / 6. Propositions Critique
The main aim of the multiple relations theory of judgement was to dispense with propositions [Russell, by Linsky,B]
22. Metaethics / A. Ethics Foundations / 2. Source of Ethics / j. Ethics by convention
True goodness is political, and consists of love of and submission to the laws [Montesquieu]
23. Ethics / E. Utilitarianism / 2. Ideal of Pleasure
Judgements of usefulness depend on judgements of value [Russell]
24. Political Theory / A. Basis of a State / 1. A People / b. The natural life
Primitive people would be too vulnerable and timid to attack anyone, so peace would reign [Montesquieu]
Men do not desire to subjugate one another; domination is a complex and advanced idea [Montesquieu]
24. Political Theory / A. Basis of a State / 1. A People / c. A unified people
People are drawn into society by needs, shared fears, pleasure, and knowledge [Montesquieu]
People are guided by a multitude of influences, from which the spirit of a nation emerges [Montesquieu]
24. Political Theory / A. Basis of a State / 2. Population / b. State population
In small republics citizens identify with the public good, and abuses are fewer [Montesquieu]
In a large republic there is too much wealth for individuals to manage it [Montesquieu]
24. Political Theory / A. Basis of a State / 4. Original Position / b. Veil of ignorance
The rich would never submit to a lottery deciding which part of their society should be slaves [Montesquieu]
24. Political Theory / B. Nature of a State / 1. Purpose of a State
All states aim at preservation, and then have distinctive individual purposes [Montesquieu]
24. Political Theory / C. Ruling a State / 2. Leaders / a. Autocracy
The natural power of a father suggests rule by one person, but that authority can be spread [Montesquieu]
24. Political Theory / C. Ruling a State / 2. Leaders / b. Monarchy
Monarchies can act more quickly, because one person is in charge [Montesquieu]
The nobility are an indispensable part of a monarchy [Montesquieu]
Monarchs must not just have links to the people; they need a body which maintains the laws [Montesquieu]
Ambition is good in a monarchy, because the monarch can always restrain it [Montesquieu]
In monarchies, men's actions are judged by their grand appearance, not their virtues [Montesquieu]
In a monarchy, the nobility must be hereditary, to bind them together [Montesquieu]
24. Political Theory / C. Ruling a State / 2. Leaders / c. Despotism
A despot's agents must be given power, so they inevitably become corrupt [Montesquieu]
Despotism and honour are incompatible, because honour scorns his power, and lives by rules [Montesquieu]
Tyranny is either real violence, or the imposition of unpopular legislation [Montesquieu]
Despots are always lazy and ignorant, so they always delegate their power to a vizier [Montesquieu]
The will of a despot is an enigma, so magistrates can only follow their own will [Montesquieu]
24. Political Theory / C. Ruling a State / 2. Leaders / d. Elites
If the nobility is numerous, the senate is the artistocracy, and the nobles are a democracy [Montesquieu]
Aristocracy is democratic if they resemble the people, but not if they resemble the monarch [Montesquieu]
Great inequality between aristocrats and the rest is bad - and also among aristocrats themselves [Montesquieu]
24. Political Theory / C. Ruling a State / 3. Government / a. Government
If a government is to be preserved, it must first be loved [Montesquieu]
A government has a legislature, an international executive, and a domestic executive [Montesquieu]
24. Political Theory / C. Ruling a State / 3. Government / b. Legislature
The judiciary must be separate from the legislature, to avoid arbitrary power [Montesquieu]
24. Political Theory / D. Ideologies / 5. Democracy / b. Consultation
The fundamental laws of a democracy decide who can vote [Montesquieu]
It is basic to a democracy that the people themselves must name their ministers [Montesquieu]
Voting should be public, so the lower classes can be influenced by the example of notable people [Montesquieu]
All citizens (apart from the very humble poor) should choose their representatives [Montesquieu]
24. Political Theory / D. Ideologies / 5. Democracy / c. Direct democracy
In a democracy the people should manage themselves, and only delegate what they can't do [Montesquieu]
A democratic assembly must have a fixed number, to see whether everyone has spoken [Montesquieu]
24. Political Theory / D. Ideologies / 5. Democracy / d. Representative democracy
If deputies represent people, they are accountable, but less so if they represent places [Montesquieu]
25. Social Practice / A. Freedoms / 1. Slavery
Slaves are not members of the society, so no law can forbid them to run away [Montesquieu]
Slavery is entirely bad; the master abandons the virtues, and they are pointless in the slave [Montesquieu]
The demand for slavery is just the masters' demand for luxury [Montesquieu]
25. Social Practice / A. Freedoms / 3. Free speech
Freedom of speech and writing, within the law, is essential to preserve liberty [Montesquieu]
25. Social Practice / A. Freedoms / 5. Freedom of lifestyle
Freedom in society is ability to do what is right, and not having to do what is wrong [Montesquieu]
25. Social Practice / B. Equalities / 1. Grounds of equality
No one even thinks of equality in monarchies and despotism; they all want superiority [Montesquieu]
Equality is not command by everyone or no one, but command and obedience among equals [Montesquieu]
25. Social Practice / B. Equalities / 2. Political equality
Democracy is corrupted by lack of equality, or by extreme equality (between rulers and ruled) [Montesquieu]
25. Social Practice / B. Equalities / 4. Economic equality
Some equality can be achieved by social categories, combined with taxes and poor relief [Montesquieu]
Democracies may sometimes need to restrict equality [Montesquieu]
25. Social Practice / D. Justice / 2. The Law / c. Natural law
Prior to positive laws there is natural equity, of obedience, gratitude, dependence and merit [Montesquieu]
Sensation gives animals natural laws, but knowledge can make them break them [Montesquieu]
25. Social Practice / D. Justice / 3. Punishment / a. Right to punish
The death penalty is permissible, because its victims enjoyed the protection of that law [Montesquieu]
If religion teaches determinism, penalties must be severe; if free will, then that is different [Montesquieu]
25. Social Practice / E. Policies / 1. War / d. Non-combatants
The only right victors have over captives is the protection of the former [Montesquieu]
25. Social Practice / E. Policies / 2. Religion in Society
The clergy are essential to a monarchy, but dangerous in a republic [Montesquieu]
Religion has the most influence in despotic states, and reinforces veneration for the ruler [Montesquieu]
Religion can support the state when the law fails to do so [Montesquieu]
French slavery was accepted because it was the best method of religious conversion [Montesquieu]
25. Social Practice / E. Policies / 5. Education / a. Aims of education
In monarchies education ennobles people, and in despotisms it debases them [Montesquieu]
25. Social Practice / E. Policies / 5. Education / c. Teaching
Teaching is the best practice of the general virtue that leads us to love everyone [Montesquieu]
26. Natural Theory / D. Laws of Nature / 8. Scientific Essentialism / c. Essence and laws
Laws are the necessary relations that derive from the nature of things [Montesquieu]
26. Natural Theory / D. Laws of Nature / 11. Against Laws of Nature
We can't know that our laws are exceptionless, or even that there are any laws [Russell]